A exposição a radiocontraste pode causar LRA.[5]Sharfuddin AA, Weisbord SD, Palevsky PM, et al. Acute kidney injury. In: Taal MW, Chertow GM, Marsden PA, et al, eds. Brenner and Rector's the kidney. 9th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders; 2012.No entanto, a associação com a exposição a radiocontraste é controversa, pois os estudos populacionais não replicam o risco.[33]Wilhelm-Leen E, Montez-Rath ME, Chertow G. Estimating the risk of radiocontrast-associated nephropathy. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2017 Feb;28(2):653-9.
https://jasn.asnjournals.org/content/28/2/653.long
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27688297?tool=bestpractice.com
[34]Brinjikji W, Demchuk AM, Murad MH, et al. Neurons over nephrons: systematic review and meta-analysis of contrast-induced nephropathy in patients with acute stroke. Stroke. 2017 Jul;48(7):1862-8.
https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/STROKEAHA.117.016771
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28583996?tool=bestpractice.com
[35]Ehrmann S, Quartin A, Hobbs BP, et al. Contrast-associated acute kidney injury in the critically ill: systematic review and Bayesian meta-analysis. Intensive Care Med. 2017 Jun;43(6):785-94.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28197679?tool=bestpractice.com
[36]Goulden R, Rowe BH, Abrahamowicz M, et al. Association of intravenous radiocontrast with kidney function: a regression discontinuity analysis. JAMA Intern Med. 2021 Jun 1;181(6):767-74.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8022267
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33818606?tool=bestpractice.com
As evidências relativas à prevenção da LRA induzida por contraste são fracas e frequentemente conflitantes.
A administração de soro fisiológico em uma dose de 1 mL/kg/hora por várias horas antes e depois do contraste pode ser benéfica na prevenção da nefropatia por contraste.[60]Barrett BJ, Parfey PS. Clinical practice. Preventing nephropathy induced by contrast medium. N Engl J Med. 2006 Jan 26;354(4):379-86.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16436769?tool=bestpractice.com
O American College of Radiology e a National Kidney Foundation recomendam profilaxia com soro fisiológico para os pacientes que forem receber contraste iodado e tiverem LRA ou uma TFG estimada inferior a 30 mL/minuto/1.73 m².[61]Davenport MS, Perazella MA, Yee J, et al. Use of intravenous iodinated contrast media in patients with kidney disease: consensus statements from the American College of Radiology and the National Kidney Foundation. Radiology. 2020 Mar;294(3):660-8.
https://pubs.rsna.org/doi/10.1148/radiol.2019192094
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31961246?tool=bestpractice.com
O National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) do Reino Unido recomenda o uso da expansão intravenosa de volume somente para os pacientes hospitalizados considerados particularmente de alto risco, como por exemplo se tiverem comprometimento renal preexistente.[3]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Acute kidney injury: prevention, detection and management. Dec 2019 [internet publication].
https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng148
[Evidência C]3ef46c62-fd82-4729-9b79-e82946ac336eguidelineCQuais são os efeitos do cloreto de sódio a 0.9% (soro fisiológico) na prevenção da lesão renal aguda induzida por contraste (LRA-IC) em adultos de risco?[62]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Acute kidney injury: prevention, detection and management. Dec 2019 [internet publication].
https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng148
No entanto, um grande estudo não mostrou benefício da hidratação intravenosa preventiva em pacientes com risco de nefropatia induzida por contraste de acordo com as diretrizes atuais.[63]Nijssen EC, Rennenberg RJ, Nelemans PJ, et al. Prophylactic hydration to protect renal function from intravascular iodinated contrast material in patients at high risk of contrast-induced nephropathy (AMACING): a prospective, randomised, phase 3, controlled, open-label, non-inferiority trial. Lancet. 2017 Apr 1;389(10076):1312-22.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28233565?tool=bestpractice.com
O probucol, o alopurinol, o alprostadil e o peptídeo natriurético atrial reduziram o risco de LRA induzida por contraste em pequenos estudos, mas permanecem experimentais.[64]Li G, Yin L, Liu T, et al. Role of probucol in preventing contrast-induced acute kidney injury after coronary interventional procedure. Am J Cardiol. 2009 Feb 15;103(4):512-4.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19195512?tool=bestpractice.com
[65]Brar SS, Hiremath S, Dangas G, et al. Sodium bicarbonate for the prevention of contrast induced-acute kidney injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2009 Oct;4(10):1584-92.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19713291?tool=bestpractice.com
[66]Morikawa S, Sone T, Tsuboi H, et al. Renal protective effects and the prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy by atrial natriuretic peptide. [Erratum in: J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009;54:1122.] J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009 Mar 24;53(12):1040-6.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19298916?tool=bestpractice.com
[67]Xin W, Lin Z, Zhang T, et al. Probucol for the prevention of contrast-induced acute kidney injury in patients undergoing coronary angiography or percutaneous coronary intervention: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials
. Clin Nephrol. 2019 Jul;92(1):36-43.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30964433?tool=bestpractice.com
[68]Xie J, Jiang M, Lin Y, et al. Effect of alprostadil on the prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy: a meta-analysis of 36 randomized controlled trials. Angiology. 2019 Aug;70(7):594-612.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30669852?tool=bestpractice.com
[69]Xin W, Lin Z, Zhang T, et al. Effects of allopurinol pretreatment on the risk of contrast-induced acute kidney injury in patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials
. Clin Nephrol. 2020 Jan;93(1):24-33.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31661061?tool=bestpractice.com
As estatinas em altas doses parecem reduzir o risco de LRA induzida por contraste em alguns grupos de pacientes.[70]Li H, Wang C, Liu C, et al. Efficacy of short-term statin treatment for the prevention of contrast-induced acute kidney injury in patients undergoing coronary angiography/percutaneous coronary intervention: a meta-analysis of 21 randomized controlled trials. Am J Cardiovasc Drugs. 2016 Jun;16(3):201-19.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26899537?tool=bestpractice.com
[71]Cho A, Lee YK, Sohn SY. Beneficial effect of statin on preventing contrast-induced acute kidney injury in patients with renal insufficiency: a meta-analysis. Medicine (Baltimore). 2020 Mar;99(10):e19473.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7478506
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32150109?tool=bestpractice.com
[72]Mercado MG, Smith DK, Guard EL. Acute kidney injury: diagnosis and management. Am Fam Physician. 2019 Dec 1;100(11):687-94.
https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2019/1201/p687.html
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31790176?tool=bestpractice.com
É improvável que o bicarbonato de sódio seja superior ao soro na prevenção de lesão induzida por contraste.[73]Solomon R, Gordon P, Manoukian SV, et al. Randomized trial of bicarbonate or saline study for the prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy in patients with CKD. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2015 Sep 4;10(9):1519-24.
https://cjasn.asnjournals.org/content/10/9/1519.long
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26185263?tool=bestpractice.com
[74]Weisbord SD, Gallagher M, Jneid H, et al; PRESERVE Trial Group. Outcomes after angiography with sodium bicarbonate and acetylcysteine. N Engl J Med. 2018 Feb 15;378(7):603-14.
https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMoa1710933
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29130810?tool=bestpractice.com
Estudos que avaliam a eficácia da administração de acetilcisteína antes da exposição a contraste produziram resultados conflitantes, mas estudos maiores não mostraram benefício significativo.[74]Weisbord SD, Gallagher M, Jneid H, et al; PRESERVE Trial Group. Outcomes after angiography with sodium bicarbonate and acetylcysteine. N Engl J Med. 2018 Feb 15;378(7):603-14.
https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMoa1710933
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29130810?tool=bestpractice.com
[75]Anderson SM, Park ZH, Patel RV. Intravenous N-acetylcysteine in the prevention of contrast media-induced nephropathy. Ann Pharmacother. 2011 Jan;45(1):101-7.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21205947?tool=bestpractice.com
[76]Guo Z, Liu J, Lei L, et al. Effect of N-acetylcysteine on prevention of contrast-associated acute kidney injury in patients with STEMI undergoing primary percutaneous coronary intervention: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ Open. 2020 Oct 16;10(10):e039009.
https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/10/10/e039009.long
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33067289?tool=bestpractice.com
[77]Magner K, Ilin JV, Clark EG, et al. Meta-analytic techniques to assess the association between N-acetylcysteine and acute kidney injury after contrast administration: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Netw Open. 2022 Jul 1;5(7):e2220671.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9257561
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35788669?tool=bestpractice.com
Tratamento durante cirurgia cardíaca
Demonstrou-se que o nitroprusseto de sódio está associado à melhora da função renal quando administrado durante o período de reaquecimento da circulação extracorpórea não pulsátil no decorrer da cirurgia de enxerto coronariano.[78]Kaya K, Oguz M, Akar AR, et al. The effect of sodium nitroprusside infusion on renal function during reperfusion period in patients undergoing coronary artery bypass grafting: a prospective randomized clinical trial. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2007 Feb;31(2):290-7.
https://academic.oup.com/ejcts/article/31/2/290/454425
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17174559?tool=bestpractice.com
Uma ampla metanálise de 4605 pacientes adultos submetidos à cirurgia cardíaca com circulação extracorpórea e recebendo diferentes formas de terapia concluiu que o fenoldopam, o peptídeo natriurético atrial e o peptídeo natriurético do tipo B mostraram evidências de nefroproteção, embora nenhum tenha reduzido todas as causas de mortalidade.[79]Patel NN, Rogers CA, Angelini GD, et al. Pharmacological therapies for the prevention of acute kidney injury following cardiac surgery: a systematic review. Heart Fail Rev. 2011 Nov;16(6):553-67.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21400231?tool=bestpractice.com
Permanece difícil justificar essas intervenções com base em evidências gerais.
Um estudo para avaliar o efeito de altas doses de atorvastatina perioperatória em pacientes submetidos a enxerto coronariano eletivo, cirurgia cardíaca valvar ou cirurgia da aorta ascendente não sugeriu benefícios.[80]Billings FT 4th, Hendricks PA, Schildcrout JS, et al. High-dose perioperative atorvastatin and acute kidney injury following cardiac surgery: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2016 Mar 1;315(9):877-88.
https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2492851
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26906014?tool=bestpractice.com
Em uma população semelhante de pacientes, a LRA foi mais comum entre os pacientes randomizados para rosuvastatina perioperatória do que para o placebo.[81]Zheng Z, Jayaram R, Jiang L, et al. Perioperative rosuvastatin in cardiac surgery. N Engl J Med. 2016 May 5;374(18):1744-53.
https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1507750
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27144849?tool=bestpractice.com
Levosimendana, um sensibilizador de cálcio usado para melhor o débito cardíaco, até agora se mostrou promissor nos estudos para prevenção de LRA em pacientes submetidos a cirurgias cardíacas.[82]Zhou C, Gong J, Chen D, et al. Levosimendan for prevention of acute kidney injury after cardiac surgery: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Am J Kidney Dis. 2016 Mar;67(3):408-16.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26518388?tool=bestpractice.com
[83]Sanfilippo F, Knight JB, Scolletta S, et al. Levosimendan for patients with severely reduced left ventricular systolic function and/or low cardiac output syndrome undergoing cardiac surgery: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care. 2017 Oct 19;21(1):252.
https://ccforum.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13054-017-1849-0
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29047417?tool=bestpractice.com
Uma metanálise sugeriu que o suporte com uma bomba de balão intra-aórtico em pacientes de alto risco submetidos a cirurgias de enxerto coronariano diminui a chance de LRA pós-operatória.[84]Wang J, Yu W, Gao M, et al. Preoperative prophylactic intraaortic balloon pump reduces the incidence of postoperative acute kidney injury and short-term death of high-risk patients undergoing coronary artery bypass grafting: a meta-analysis of 17 studies. Ann Thorac Surg. 2016 May;101(5):2007-19.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27045229?tool=bestpractice.com
Comparada com o enxerto coronariano com bomba, a cirurgia sem bomba parece reduzir o risco de LRA pós-operatória.[53]Garg AX, Devereaux PJ, Yusuf S, et al. Kidney function after off-pump or on-pump coronary artery bypass graft surgery: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2014 Jun 4;311(21):2191-8.
http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1877182
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24886787?tool=bestpractice.com
Uma metanálise de 1308 pacientes adultos submetidos a cirurgia cardíaca concluiu que a administração perioperatória de dexmedetomidina reduziu o risco de LRA; no entanto, não houve redução significativa na mortalidade intra-hospitalar.[85]Peng K, Li D, Applegate RL 2nd, et al. Effect of dexmedetomidine on cardiac surgery-associated acute kidney injury: a meta-analysis with trial sequential analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2020 Mar;34(3):603-13.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31587928?tool=bestpractice.com
Pacientes em estado crítico no cenário de unidade de terapia intensiva
Não está claro se uma estratégia de fluidoterapia intravenosa poupadora de cloreto reduz a incidência de LRA em pacientes em estado crítico.[86]Yunos NM, Bellomo R, Hegarty C, et al. Association between a chloride-liberal vs chloride-restrictive intravenous fluid administration strategy and kidney injury in critically ill adults. JAMA. 2012 Oct 17;308(15):1566-72.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23073953?tool=bestpractice.com
[87]Young P, Bailey M, Beasley R, et al. Effect of a buffered crystalloid solution vs saline on acute kidney injury among patients in the intensive care unit: the SPLIT randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2015 Oct 27;314(16):1701-10.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26444692?tool=bestpractice.com
São necessários estudos randomizados maiores para alterar a prática.[87]Young P, Bailey M, Beasley R, et al. Effect of a buffered crystalloid solution vs saline on acute kidney injury among patients in the intensive care unit: the SPLIT randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2015 Oct 27;314(16):1701-10.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26444692?tool=bestpractice.com
Acidose metabólica grave
Um ensaio relatou um melhor desfecho e menos mortalidade entre um subconjunto de pacientes em estado crítico com LRA que receberam infusão de bicarbonato de sódio para a correção de acidemia metabólica.[88]Jaber S, Paugam C, Futier E, et al; BICAR-ICU Study Group. Sodium bicarbonate therapy for patients with severe metabolic acidaemia in the intensive care unit (BICAR-ICU): a multicentre, open-label, randomised controlled, phase 3 trial. Lancet. 2018 Jul 7;392(10141):31-40.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29910040?tool=bestpractice.com
No entanto, o bicarbonato de sódio não foi associado a um benefício clínico em pacientes não selecionados em estado crítico com acidemia grave.