人类病例于 1970 年在扎伊尔(现称刚果民主共和国 [Democratic Republic of Congo],或 DRC)首次被发现。从那时起,人类病例持续增加,特别是在 DRC,这些年中不断报告病例。病例增加的原因可能在于天花疫苗接种停止(该疫苗提供了一定的针对猴痘的交叉保护力)或免疫力下降、环境因素(例如人口密度增加、人类定居地有未知的动物宿主、森林砍伐)和/或病毒遗传进化。但是并无证据对此理论加以支持。[4]Bunge EM, Hoet B, Chen L, et al. The changing epidemiology of human monkeypox – a potential threat? A systematic review. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2022 Feb;16(2):e0010141.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8870502
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35148313?tool=bestpractice.com
[5]Beer EM, Rao VB. A systematic review of the epidemiology of human monkeypox outbreaks and implications for outbreak strategy. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2019 Oct;13(10):e0007791.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6816577
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31618206?tool=bestpractice.com
[6]Nguyen PY, Ajisegiri WS, Costantino V, et al. Reemergence of human monkeypox and declining population immunity in the context of urbanization, Nigeria, 2017-2020. Emerg Infect Dis. 2021 Apr;27(4):1007-14.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8007331
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33756100?tool=bestpractice.com
据了解,mpox 以前在中非和西非流行。[7]World Health Organization. Epidemiology of human monkeypox (mpox) - worldwide, 2018-2021. Jan 2023 [internet publication].
https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/365630/WER9803-29-36.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
据报道,多数病例出现在刚果盆地和西非乡村地区(毗邻或位于热带森林),特别是在 DRC,曾在 1996-1997 年期间发生过一次大规模暴发。[5]Beer EM, Rao VB. A systematic review of the epidemiology of human monkeypox outbreaks and implications for outbreak strategy. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2019 Oct;13(10):e0007791.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6816577
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31618206?tool=bestpractice.com
在 2000-2021 年,中非共和国发生 95 次疑似暴发和 40 次确认暴发,2018 年后暴发次数不断增加。[8]Besombes C, Mbrenga F, Schaeffer L, et al. National monkeypox surveillance, Central African Republic, 2001-2021. Emerg Infect Dis. 2022 Nov 3;28(12).
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36328951?tool=bestpractice.com
尼日利亚在 39 年无猴痘病例报告后,于 2017 年再次出现病例。此后,在 2017-2021 年已发生 5 次暴发。[9]McCollum AM, Shelus V, Hill A, et al. Epidemiology of human mpox: worldwide, 2018-2021. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2023 Jan 20;72(3):68-72.
https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/72/wr/mm7203a4.htm
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36656790?tool=bestpractice.com
中非共和国最大的确诊病例暴发发生在 2021 年 11 月,有 14 例病例和 4 波人际传播。[10]Besombes C, Mbrenga F, Malaka C, et al. Investigation of a mpox outbreak in Central African Republic, 2021-2022. One Health. 2023 Jun;16:100523.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9988319
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36950196?tool=bestpractice.com
2022 年,在苏丹共和国难民营中发生了猴痘暴发,但未报告人畜共患感染源。[11]World Health Organization. Mpox (monkeypox): fact sheet. Aug 2024 [internet publication].
https://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/monkeypox
分支 Ⅱ 引起的持续全球 mpox 暴发
最早于 2022 年 5 月发现分支 Ⅱ 引起的全球 mpox 暴发,且在多国持续暴发。最初在非洲以外的数个国家报告了聚集性病例,而这些病例与流行地区无直接旅行联系。据报道,这是与西非和中非无已知流行病学关联的国家首次出现传播链。
WHO 在 2022 年 7 月宣布 mpox 暴发构成“国际关注的突发公共卫生事件(Public Health Emergency of International Concern, PHEIC)”。尽管仍有病例报告,但由于发病率已显著下降,在 2023 年 5 月宣布不再是 PHEIC。此次暴发中流行的病毒大多数为分支 Ⅱb。
从 2022 年初至 2024 年 9 月 30 日,全球 236 个国家/地区报告了超过 109,000 例实验室确诊病例,其中 236 例死亡。疫情最严重的国家包括美国、巴西、西班牙、刚果民主共和国、法国和哥伦比亚。[12]World Health Organization. 2022-24 mpox (monkeypox) outbreak: global trends. Oct 2024 [internet publication].
https://worldhealthorg.shinyapps.io/mpx_global
据报道,在以前已停止传播的地区出现了散发病例群组。[13]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Notes from the field: emergence of an mpox cluster primarily affecting persons previously vaccinated against mpox - Chicago, Illinois, March 18-June 12, 2023. Jun 2023 [internet publication].
https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/72/wr/mm7225a6.htm
与既往暴发不同,非洲以外地区的病例多为较年轻成年男性,其中大多数为男同性恋、双性恋或其他男男性行为者。[14]León-Figueroa DA, Barboza JJ, Garcia-Vasquez EA, et al. Epidemiological situation of monkeypox transmission by possible sexual contact: a systematic review. Trop Med Infect Dis. 2022 Sep 27;7(10):267.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9607952
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36288008?tool=bestpractice.com
[15]Kumar R, Singh S, Singh SK. A systematic review of 5110 cases of monkeypox: what has changed between 1970 and 2022? Cureus. 2022 Oct;14(10):e30841.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9704117
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36451652?tool=bestpractice.com
[16]Liu Q, Fu L, Wang B, et al. Clinical characteristics of human mpox (monkeypox) in 2022: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Pathogens. 2023 Jan 15;12(1):146.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9861547
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36678494?tool=bestpractice.com
尚无任何迹象表明在这些社交网络之外有持续传播。18-44 岁男性感染比例奇高。[12]World Health Organization. 2022-24 mpox (monkeypox) outbreak: global trends. Oct 2024 [internet publication].
https://worldhealthorg.shinyapps.io/mpx_global
还报告了女性(主要是异性恋者,包括孕妇)和儿童的病例,尽管更为罕见。[17]Grothe JH, Cornely OA, Salmanton-García J, et al. Monkeypox in children and adult women in Europe: results from a flash VACCELERATE pilot survey. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin. 2022 Sep 19 [Epub ahead of print].
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9534071
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36249472?tool=bestpractice.com
[18]Vallejo-Plaza A, Rodríguez-Cabrera F, Hernando Sebastián V, et al. Mpox (formerly monkeypox) in women: epidemiological features and clinical characteristics of mpox cases in Spain, April to November 2022. Euro Surveill. 2022 Dec;27(48):2200867.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9716644
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36695461?tool=bestpractice.com
[19]Gaeta F, De Caro F, Franci G, et al. Monkeypox infection 2022: an updated narrative review focusing on the neonatal and pediatric population. Children (Basel). 2022 Nov 26;9(12):1832.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9776986
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36553276?tool=bestpractice.com
在美国,所有报告的病例中有 2.7% 是女性,其中有 3% 为孕妇或最近怀孕的女性(截至 2022 年 11 月)。[20]Oakley LP, Hufstetler K, O'Shea J, et al. Mpox cases among cisgender women and pregnant persons: United States, May 11 - November 7, 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2023 Jan 6;72(1):9-14.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9815154
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36602932?tool=bestpractice.com
与非洲以外的国家相比,尼日利亚的儿童和女性感染病例较多,而非 HIV 感染者和男同性恋、双性恋或其他男男性行为者感染病例较少。住院率也远高于其他国家。[21]Ogoina D, Dalhat MM, Denue BA, et al. Clinical characteristics and predictors of human mpox outcome during the 2022 outbreak in Nigeria: a cohort study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2023 Aug 22:S1473-3099(23)00427-9.
https://www.thelancet.com/journals/laninf/article/PIIS1473-3099(23)00427-9/fulltext
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/37625431?tool=bestpractice.com
疫情暴发期间,跨性别者和性别多元化人群受到的影响尤其严重。[22]Blackburn D, Roth NM, Gold JAW, et al. Epidemiologic and clinical features of mpox in transgender and gender-diverse adults: United States, May - November 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2022 Dec 30;71(5152):1605-9.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9812441
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36580418?tool=bestpractice.com
[23]Wick JM, Pelliccione A, Lee-Rodriguez C, et al. An atypical presentation of mpox transmitted between transgender men through oral sex. Sex Transm Dis. 2023 Oct 1;50(10):685-6.
https://journals.lww.com/stdjournal/fulltext/2023/10000/an_atypical_presentation_of_mpox_transmitted.10.aspx
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/37195290?tool=bestpractice.com
种族和族裔差异也存在。[24]Kota KK, Hong J, Zelaya C, et al. Racial and ethnic disparities in Mpox cases and vaccination among adult males - United States, May-December 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2023 Apr 14;72(15):398-403.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10121252
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/37053122?tool=bestpractice.com
>50 岁成人似乎与<50 岁成人有相似的住院和死亡风险,这可能是由于老年人在儿童免疫接种计划中接种了天花疫苗。[25]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Epidemiologic and clinical features of mpox in adults aged >50 years - United States, May 2022-May 2023. Aug 2023 [internet publication].
https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/72/wr/mm7233a3.htm
源于非洲的分支 Ⅰ mpox 暴发
在 2023-2024 年,DRC 的病例数和死亡人数显著增加,并且疫情范围扩大至以前无猴痘病例报告的地区(包括邻近国家/地区,如布隆迪、肯尼亚、卢旺达和乌干达),并且首次发现了由分支 Ⅰb (一种新发现的变异株)引起的性传播感染。[12]World Health Organization. 2022-24 mpox (monkeypox) outbreak: global trends. Oct 2024 [internet publication].
https://worldhealthorg.shinyapps.io/mpx_global
[27]World Health Organization. Disease outbreak news: mpox (monkeypox) - Democratic Republic of the Congo. Nov 2023 [internet publication].
https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease-outbreak-news/item/2023-DON493
[28]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Mpox caused by human-to-human transmission of monkeypox virus in the Democratic Republic of the Congo with spread to neighboring countries. Aug 2024 [internet publication].
https://emergency.cdc.gov/han/2024/han00513.asp
WHO 在 2024 年 8 月 14 日宣布此次暴发构成 PHEIC。[29]World Health Organization. WHO Director-General declares mpox outbreak a public health emergency of international concern. Aug 2024 [internet publication].
https://www.who.int/news/item/14-08-2024-who-director-general-declares-mpox-outbreak-a-public-health-emergency-of-international-concern
从 2022 年初至 2024 年 10 月 27 日,非洲共报告了约 13,126 例实验室确诊病例,其中 59 例死亡。2024 年 19 个国家共报告了 10,722 例,其中 36 例死亡。2024 年病例数最多的 3 个国家是刚果民主共和国、布隆迪和乌干达。[12]World Health Organization. 2022-24 mpox (monkeypox) outbreak: global trends. Oct 2024 [internet publication].
https://worldhealthorg.shinyapps.io/mpx_global
疑似病例数更多;这些病例由于一些非洲国家/地区的诊断能力有限而始终未经检测确诊。
猴痘疫情仍在持续,还存在由性传播驱动的持续性社区传播。尚不清楚流行的分支 Ⅰb 变异株是否比其他分支 Ⅰ 变异株的传染性更强,或引起的疾病更严重。[30]World Health Organization. Disease outbreak news: mpox - Democratic Republic of the Congo. Jun 2024 [internet publication].
https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease-outbreak-news/item/2024-DON522
[31]World Health Organization. Mpox – African region. Aug 2024 [internet publication].
https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease-outbreak-news/item/2024-DON528
据报告,非洲以外地区(例如,印度、瑞典和泰国、德国和英国)出现少数与旅行相关的分支 Ⅰb 感染病例。[26]UK Health Security Agency. Latest update on cases of Clade Ib mpox. Nov 2024 [internet publication].
https://www.gov.uk/government/news/ukhsa-detects-first-case-of-clade-ib-mpox
[32]World Health Organization. Mpox – Sweden. Aug 2024 [internet publication].
https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease-outbreak-news/item/2024-DON531
[33]European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. Confirmed mpox clade Ib case in Germany, risk remains low for EU/EEA. Oct 2024 [internet publication].
https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/news-events/confirmed-mpox-clade-ib-case-germany-risk-remains-low-eueea
关于当前疫情流行病学的信息更新可从公共卫生部门获取。
在既往暴发中,患者多为儿童。然而,2022 年全球分支 Ⅱ 型 mpox 暴发中病例多为成年男性。[34]Li P, Li J, Ayada I, et al. Clinical features, antiviral treatment and patient outcomes: a systematic review and comparative analysis of the previous and the 2022 mpox outbreaks. J Infect Dis. 2023 Feb 3 [Epub ahead of print].
https://academic.oup.com/jid/advance-article/doi/10.1093/infdis/jiad034/7025706?login=false
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36735342?tool=bestpractice.com
就诊的中位年龄从 20 世纪 70 年代的幼童(4 岁)演变为 2010 年至 2019 年间的年轻成人(21 岁)。[4]Bunge EM, Hoet B, Chen L, et al. The changing epidemiology of human monkeypox – a potential threat? A systematic review. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2022 Feb;16(2):e0010141.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8870502
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35148313?tool=bestpractice.com
在 2022 年分支 Ⅱ 所致全球 mpox 暴发中,成人病例多于儿童病例。[15]Kumar R, Singh S, Singh SK. A systematic review of 5110 cases of monkeypox: what has changed between 1970 and 2022? Cureus. 2022 Oct;14(10):e30841.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9704117
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36451652?tool=bestpractice.com
[19]Gaeta F, De Caro F, Franci G, et al. Monkeypox infection 2022: an updated narrative review focusing on the neonatal and pediatric population. Children (Basel). 2022 Nov 26;9(12):1832.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9776986
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36553276?tool=bestpractice.com
在全球范围内,1.3% 的病例为 18 岁以下的儿童和青少年,且无死亡病例报道。[35]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Emerging infectious diseases: mpox in children and adolescents during multicountry outbreak, 2022-2023. Sep 2023 [internet publication].
https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/29/10/23-0516_article
在美国,18 岁以下的儿童和青少年占所有病例的< 0.1%,无重症病例和死亡。新生儿病例报道极少。[36]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Clinical considerations for mpox in children and adolescents in the U.S. Sep 2024 [internet publication].
https://www.cdc.gov/mpox/hcp/clinical-care/pediatric.html
有关 2022 年全球分支 Ⅱ 型 mpox 暴发的现有数据表明,28%-51% 的患者是 HIV 阳性(在 HIV 状况已知的病例中)。[37]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Clinical considerations for mpox in immunocompromised people. Sep 2024 [internet publication].
https://www.cdc.gov/mpox/hcp/clinical-care/immunocompromised-people.html
[38]O'Shea J, Filardo TD, Morris SB, et al. Interim guidance for prevention and treatment of monkeypox in persons with HIV infection: United States, August 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2022 Aug 12;71(32):1023-8.
https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/71/wr/mm7132e4.htm
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35951495?tool=bestpractice.com
虽然女性仅占病例的少数,但感染 HIV 的女性比例估计为 27%(50% 为跨性别女性)。[39]Thornhill JP, Palich R, Ghosn J, et al. Human monkeypox virus infection in women and non-binary individuals during the 2022 outbreaks: a global case series. Lancet. 2022 Dec 3;400(10367):1953-65.
https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(22)02187-0/fulltext
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36403584?tool=bestpractice.com
但是,在迄今为止规模最大的女性研究中,只有 4.4% 的女性感染了 HIV(而男性为 40.8%)。[18]Vallejo-Plaza A, Rodríguez-Cabrera F, Hernando Sebastián V, et al. Mpox (formerly monkeypox) in women: epidemiological features and clinical characteristics of mpox cases in Spain, April to November 2022. Euro Surveill. 2022 Dec;27(48):2200867.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9716644
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36695461?tool=bestpractice.com
在 2022 年分支 Ⅱ 所致全球 mpox 暴发之前,英国、美国、新加坡和以色列报告了少量与旅行相关的病例。[40]UK Health Security Agency. Monkeypox case in England. December 2018 [internet publication].
https://www.gov.uk/government/news/monkeypox-case-in-england
[41]UK Health Security Agency. Monkeypox case confirmed in England. December 2019 [internet publication].
https://www.gov.uk/government/news/monkeypox-case-confirmed-in-england
[42]World Health Organization. Monkeypox: United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. July 2021 [internet publication].
https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease-outbreak-news/item/monkeypox---united-kingdom-of-great-britain-and-northern-ireland
[43]World Health Organization. Monkeypox: United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. June 2022 [internet publication].
https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease-outbreak-news/item/2022-DON381
[44]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Imported monkeypox case reported in Maryland. Nov 2021 [internet publication].
https://archive.cdc.gov/#/details?url=https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2021/s1117-monkeypox.html
[45]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC and Texas confirm monkeypox in U.S. traveler. Jul 2021 [internet publication].
https://archive.cdc.gov/#/details?url=https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2021/s0716-confirm-monkeypox.html
[46]Rao AK, Schulte J, Chen TH, et al. Monkeypox in a traveler returning from Nigeria – Dallas, Texas, July 2021. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2022 Apr 8;71(14):509-16.
https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/71/wr/mm7114a1.htm
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35389974?tool=bestpractice.com
[47]World Health Organization. Disease outbreak news. Monkeypox - Singapore. May 2019 [internet publication].
https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease-outbreak-news/item/16-may-2019-monkeypox-singapore-en
[48]Erez N, Achdout H, Milrot E, et al. Diagnosis of imported monkeypox, Israel, 2018. Emerg Infect Dis. 2019 May;25(5):980-3.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6478227
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30848724?tool=bestpractice.com
2003 年在美国中西部地区出现了超过 70 例病例的暴发,这是非洲以外地区首次报道猴痘。本次暴发来源为接触受感染的草原犬鼠,其被西非输入的冈比亚巨鼠感染。[49]Huhn GD, Bauer AM, Yorita K, et al. Clinical characteristics of human monkeypox, and risk factors for severe disease. Clin Infect Dis. 2005 Dec 15;41(12):1742-51.
https://academic.oup.com/cid/article/41/12/1742/344953
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16288398?tool=bestpractice.com