当前证据表明,人际传播主要发生在男同性恋者、双性恋者或其他男男性行为人群(men who have sex with men, MSM)中。来自迄今为止最大型确诊病例研究的数据表明,98% 的病例为 MSM。[40]Thornhill JP, Barkati S, Walmsley S, et al. Monkeypox virus infection in humans across 16 countries: April–June 2022. N Engl J Med. 2022 Aug 25;387(8):679-91.
https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa2207323
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35866746?tool=bestpractice.com
现有证据表明,猴痘暴发的主要传播方式为与猴痘患者的性交过程中密切接触其皮肤或黏膜表面的猴痘病灶。[41]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Science brief: detection and transmission of monkeypox virus. October 2022 [internet publication].
https://www.cdc.gov/poxvirus/monkeypox/about/science-behind-transmission.html
[42]Vanhamel J, Laisnez V, Liesenborghs L, et al. Understanding sexual transmission dynamics and transmission contexts of monkeypox virus: a mixed-methods study of the early outbreak in Belgium (May-June 2022). Sex Transm Infect. 2022 Nov 17 [Epub ahead of print].
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36396173?tool=bestpractice.com
然而,亦有少数病例无性暴露史。[43]Karan A, Styczynski AR, Huang C, et al. Human monkeypox without viral prodrome or sexual exposure, California, USA, 2022. Emerg Infect Dis. 2022 Aug 16;28(10).
https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/28/10/22-1191_article
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35971952?tool=bestpractice.com
[44]Hernandez LE, Jadoo A, Kirsner RS. Human monkeypox virus infection in an immunocompromised man: trial with tecovirimat. Lancet. 2022 Sep 10;400(10355):e8.
https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(22)01528-8/fulltext
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36088950?tool=bestpractice.com
尚不清楚性接触期间的传播模式。尽管已知性行为期间的密切身体接触可导致传播,但是尚不清楚性行为期间的体液在传播方面起到什么作用(如果存在作用)。[45]World Health Organization. Multi-country monkeypox outbreak: situation update. 27 June 2022 [internet publication].
https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease-outbreak-news/item/2022-DON396
[46]Sah R, Abdelaal A, Reda A, et al. Monkeypox and its possible sexual transmission: where are we now with its evidence? Pathogens. 2022 Aug 17;11(8):924.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9414346
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36015044?tool=bestpractice.com
与鼻咽、血液和尿液样本相比,皮肤和肛门生殖器样本中的病毒载量更高。[47]Reda A, Abdelaal A, Brakat AM, et al. Monkeypox viral detection in semen specimens of confirmed cases: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Med Virol. 2022 Oct 22:e28250.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jmv.28250
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36271741?tool=bestpractice.com
这表明皮肤接触很可能是主要的传播方式,而非通过呼吸途径或接触体液传播。[48]Palich R, Burrel S, Monsel G, et al. Viral loads in clinical samples of men with monkeypox virus infection: a French case series. Lancet Infect Dis. 2022 Sep 29 [Epub ahead of print].
https://www.thelancet.com/journals/laninf/article/PIIS1473-3099(22)00586-2/fulltext
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36183707?tool=bestpractice.com
目前尚未报道经空气传播的确诊病例。[39]UK Health Security Agency. Monkeypox outbreak: technical briefings. September 2022 [internet publication].
https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/monkeypox-outbreak-technical-briefings
虽然已在精液中检测到猴痘病毒 DNA,但其存在并不等同于感染性的证据。[49]Antinori A, Mazzotta V, Vita S, et al. Epidemiological, clinical and virological characteristics of four cases of monkeypox support transmission through sexual contact, Italy, May 2022. Euro Surveill. 2022 Jun;27(22):2200421.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9164671
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35656836?tool=bestpractice.com
非人类灵长类动物研究已在感染的急性期,在睾丸的间质细胞和精管(精子产生和成熟的部位)检测到猴痘病毒。[50]Liu J, Mucker EM, Chapman JL, et al. Retrospective detection of monkeypox virus in the testes of nonhuman primate survivors. Nat Microbiol. 2022 Oct 17 [Epub ahead of print].
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41564-022-01259-w
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36253513?tool=bestpractice.com
然而,还需要进一步研究以确定这些发现的意义。
在迄今为止最大型的确诊病例研究中,检测的患者中有 29% 报告了伴随 STI。[40]Thornhill JP, Barkati S, Walmsley S, et al. Monkeypox virus infection in humans across 16 countries: April–June 2022. N Engl J Med. 2022 Aug 25;387(8):679-91.
https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa2207323
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35866746?tool=bestpractice.com
然而,目前尚不清楚 STI 是否有助于猴痘病毒的传播或改变其在此阶段的临床表达。[51]Ramoni S, Maronese CA, Morini N, et al. Syphilis and monkeypox co-infection: coincidence, synergy or asymptomatic carriage? Travel Med Infect Dis. 2022 Sep 5;50:102447.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1477893922001934
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36067937?tool=bestpractice.com
大约 25% 的女性感染与性传播无关(89% 为跨性别女性),比例显著高于男性。非性传播途径(即家庭和职业暴露)仅由顺性别女性和非二元性别人群报告,而非跨性别女性报告。[52]Thornhill JP, Palich R, Ghosn J, et al. Human monkeypox virus infection in women and non-binary individuals during the 2022 outbreaks: a global case series. Lancet. 2022 Nov 17 [Epub ahead of print].
https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(22)02187-0/fulltext
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36403584?tool=bestpractice.com
家庭接触是儿童中最常见的传播途径。[12]Saunders KE, Van Horn AN, Medlin HK, et al. Monkeypox in a young infant: Florida, 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2022 Sep 23;71(38):1220-1.
https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/71/wr/mm7138e3.htm
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36136958?tool=bestpractice.com
[15]Hennessee I, Shelus V, McArdle CE, et al. Epidemiologic and clinical features of children and adolescents aged <18 years with monkeypox: United States, May 17 - September 24, 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2022 Nov 4;71(44):1407-11.
https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/71/wr/mm7144a4.htm
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36331124?tool=bestpractice.com
[53]Aguilera-Alonso D, Alonso-Cadenas JA, Roguera-Sopena M, et al. Monkeypox virus infections in children in Spain during the first months of the 2022 outbreak. Lancet Child Adolesc Health. 2022 Nov;6(11):e22-3.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9555952
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36058226?tool=bestpractice.com
已有关于围产期传播的报道。[13]Ramnarayan P, Mitting R, Whittaker E, et al. Neonatal monkeypox virus infection. N Engl J Med. 2022 Oct 12 [Epub ahead of print].
https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMc2210828
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36223535?tool=bestpractice.com
没有足够的证据确定是否可通过母乳喂养传播。[54]Van de Perre P, Molès JP, Rollins N. Is monkeypox virus transmissible by breastfeeding? Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 2022 Oct;33(10):e13861.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/pai.13861
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36282140?tool=bestpractice.com
但已有一例母乳喂养婴儿猴痘病例的报道,很可能是通过皮肤接触传播。[55]Alonso-Cadenas JA, Andina-Martínez D, García-García CJ, et al. Monkeypox disease in a breastfeeding infant. Pediatr Dermatol. 2022 Sep 30 [Epub ahead of print].
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36180382?tool=bestpractice.com
尚不清楚症状出现前或无症状感染的程度。[45]World Health Organization. Multi-country monkeypox outbreak: situation update. 27 June 2022 [internet publication].
https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease-outbreak-news/item/2022-DON396
小型观察性研究纳入了少数肛门直肠猴痘聚合酶链反应检测呈阳性的男性无症状感染病例。[56]Ferré VM, Bachelard A, Zaidi M, et al. Detection of monkeypox virus in anorectal swabs from asymptomatic men who have sex with men in a sexually transmitted infection screening program in Paris, France. Ann Intern Med. 2022 Oct;175(10):1491-2.
https://www.acpjournals.org/doi/10.7326/M22-2183
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35969863?tool=bestpractice.com
[57]Moschese D, Pozza G, Mileto D, et al. Isolation of viable monkeypox virus from anal and urethral swabs, Italy, May to July 2022. Euro Surveill. 2022 Sep;27(36).
https://www.eurosurveillance.org/content/10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2022.27.36.2200675
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36082684?tool=bestpractice.com
[58]Cassir N, Cardona F, Tissot-Dupont H, et al. Observational cohort study of evolving epidemiologic, clinical, and virologic features of monkeypox in Southern France. Emerg Infect Dis. 2022 Oct 14;28(12).
https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/28/12/22-1440_article
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36241422?tool=bestpractice.com
在无特异性肛门直肠症状的有症状男性中还有肛门直肠检测结果呈阳性的报道。[59]Meyerowitz EA, Gendlina I, Desai VJ, et al. Anorectal testing for monkeypox virus infection in men who have sex with men with and without proctitis. Clin Infect Dis. 2022 Oct 13 [Epub ahead of print].
https://academic.oup.com/cid/advance-article/doi/10.1093/cid/ciac825/6759800
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36227656?tool=bestpractice.com
尚未发现传播病例与无症状者的接触明确相关。[41]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Science brief: detection and transmission of monkeypox virus. October 2022 [internet publication].
https://www.cdc.gov/poxvirus/monkeypox/about/science-behind-transmission.html
有证据表明存在症状前传播。[60]Ward T, Christie R, Paton RS, et al. Transmission dynamics of monkeypox in the United Kingdom: contact tracing study. BMJ. 2022 Nov 2;379:e073153.
https://www.bmj.com/content/379/bmj-2022-073153
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36323407?tool=bestpractice.com
通过接触被污染表面或物体而感染的风险较低。[41]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Science brief: detection and transmission of monkeypox virus. October 2022 [internet publication].
https://www.cdc.gov/poxvirus/monkeypox/about/science-behind-transmission.html
已在感染猴痘病例所在家庭和医院环境中物品、表面和空气样本(来自更换被褥时空气中的皮皮肤碎屑)检出猴痘病毒 DNA,在某些研究中检测到活病毒,但未在其他研究中检测到。[61]Nörz D, Pfefferle S, Brehm TT, et al. Evidence of surface contamination in hospital rooms occupied by patients infected with monkeypox, Germany, June 2022. Euro Surveill. 2022 Jun;27(26).
https://www.eurosurveillance.org/content/10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2022.27.26.2200477
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35775427?tool=bestpractice.com
[62]Atkinson B, Burton C, Pottage T, et al. Infection-competent monkeypox virus contamination identified in domestic settings following an imported case of monkeypox into the UK. Environ Microbiol. 2022 Oct;24(10):4561-9.
https://sfamjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1462-2920.16129
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35837859?tool=bestpractice.com
[63]Morgan CN, Whitehill F, Doty JB, et al. Environmental persistence of monkeypox virus on surfaces in household of person with travel-associated infection, Dallas, Texas, USA, 2021. Emerg Infect Dis. 2022 Aug 11;28(10).
https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/28/10/22-1047_article
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35951009?tool=bestpractice.com
[64]Muller MP, Mishra S, McGeer A, et al. Environmental testing of surfaces in the room of a patient with monkeypox. Clin Infect Dis. 2022 Aug 19 [Epub ahead of print].
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35982540?tool=bestpractice.com
[65]Pfeiffer JA, Collingwood A, Rider LE, et al. High-contact object and surface contamination in a household of persons with monkeypox virus infection: Utah, June 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2022 Aug 26;71(34):1092-4.
https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/71/wr/mm7134e1.htm
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36006842?tool=bestpractice.com
[66]Atkinson B, Gould S, Spencer A, et al. Monkeypox virus contamination in an office-based workplace environment. J Hosp Infect. 2022 Aug 30 [Epub ahead of print].
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9428113
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36055524?tool=bestpractice.com
[67]Gould S, Atkinson B, Onianwa O, et al. Air and surface sampling for monkeypox virus in a UK hospital: an observational study. Lancet Microbe. 2022 Oct 7 [Epub ahead of print].
https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanmic/article/PIIS2666-5247(22)00257-9/fulltext
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36215984?tool=bestpractice.com
然而,样本中检出具有复制能力的病毒并不意味着会发生传播或感染。仍有待开展进一步研究。
在长时间近距离接触者之间(例如飞机上确诊病例的邻座乘客)短暂互动(例如简短交谈)期间,或医疗就诊期间,不太可能发生传播。[68]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Isolation and prevention practices for people with monkeypox. October 2022 [internet publication].
https://www.cdc.gov/poxvirus/monkeypox/clinicians/isolation-procedures.html
有少量病例无确定的传染途径。[39]UK Health Security Agency. Monkeypox outbreak: technical briefings. September 2022 [internet publication].
https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/monkeypox-outbreak-technical-briefings
有证据表明,在 2022 年暴发前,有持续的人类传播,但尚无针对提高人类传播适应性的明确证据。[39]UK Health Security Agency. Monkeypox outbreak: technical briefings. September 2022 [internet publication].
https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/monkeypox-outbreak-technical-briefings
[69]Jolly B, Scaria V. A distinct phylogenetic cluster of monkeypox genomes suggests an early and cryptic spread of the virus. J Infect. 2022 Aug 20 [Epub ahead of print].
https://www.journalofinfection.com/article/S0163-4453(22)00476-5/fulltext
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35995311?tool=bestpractice.com
[70]Chmel M, Bartoš O, Kabíčková H, et al. Retrospective analysis revealed an April occurrence of monkeypox in the Czech Republic. Viruses. 2022 Aug 15;14(8):1773.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9412638
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36016395?tool=bestpractice.com