病因学
mpox 由猴痘病毒(MPXV;痘病毒科;正痘病毒属)引发,这是一种双链 DNA 病毒。1958 年,对发生于猴子中的痘样疾病进行调查后,首次分离出该病毒。1970 年首次在人类中发现该病毒。[5]Beer EM, Rao VB. A systematic review of the epidemiology of human monkeypox outbreaks and implications for outbreak strategy. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2019 Oct;13(10):e0007791. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6816577 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31618206?tool=bestpractice.com [11]World Health Organization. Mpox (monkeypox): fact sheet. Aug 2024 [internet publication]. https://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/monkeypox
病毒学
该病毒具有两个不同的进化分支:[50]World Health Organization. Monkeypox: experts give virus variants new names. August 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.who.int/news/item/12-08-2022-monkeypox--experts-give-virus-variants-new-names [51]Happi C, Adetifa I, Mbala P, et al. Urgent need for a non-discriminatory and non-stigmatizing nomenclature for monkeypox virus. PLoS Biol. 2022 Aug 23;20(8):e3001769. https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3001769 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35998195?tool=bestpractice.com
分支一(Ⅰ):曾称为中非(刚果盆地)分支。包括亚分支 Ⅰa (以前大多的分支 Ⅰ)和 Ⅰb。[11]World Health Organization. Mpox (monkeypox): fact sheet. Aug 2024 [internet publication]. https://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/monkeypox 分支 Ⅰb 是 2023 年在刚果民主共和国一次疫情暴发中(其中性传播为传播的主要驱动因素)首次发现的新分支。[52]Vakaniaki EH, Kacita C, Kinganda-Lusamaki E, et al. Sustained human outbreak of a new MPXV clade I lineage in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. Nat Med. 13 Jun 2024 [Epub ahead of print]. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41591-024-03130-3 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/38871006?tool=bestpractice.com
分支 Ⅱ:曾称为西非分支。包含亚分支 Ⅱa 和 Ⅱb;与分支 Ⅰ 相比,分支 Ⅱ 导致的疾病严重程度更轻、死亡人数更少,以及人际传播能更有限。[5]Beer EM, Rao VB. A systematic review of the epidemiology of human monkeypox outbreaks and implications for outbreak strategy. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2019 Oct;13(10):e0007791. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6816577 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31618206?tool=bestpractice.com
2022 年全球分支 Ⅱ 型 mpox 暴发中流行的变异株属于分支 Ⅱb。分支 Ⅱb 病毒包含 A.1、A.1.1、A.2、A.2.1、A.2.2、A.3 和 B.1 谱系。[50]World Health Organization. Monkeypox: experts give virus variants new names. August 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.who.int/news/item/12-08-2022-monkeypox--experts-give-virus-variants-new-names [53]Luna N, Ramírez AL, Muñoz M, et al. Phylogenomic analysis of the monkeypox virus (MPXV) 2022 outbreak: emergence of a novel viral lineage? Travel Med Infect Dis. 2022 Jul 13;49:102402. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35840078?tool=bestpractice.com [54]UK Health Security Agency. Monkeypox outbreak: technical briefings. September 2024 [internet publication]. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/monkeypox-outbreak-technical-briefings [55]Woolley SD, Lester R, Devine K, et al. Clade IIb A.3 monkeypox virus: an imported lineage during a large global outbreak. Lancet Infect Dis. 2023 Apr;23(4):405. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9943248 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36828004?tool=bestpractice.com
暴发中的大多数病例属于 B.1 谱系(或其后代),据估计,该谱系出现于 2022 年 3 月。但是,少数病例属于 A.2 谱系。B.1 谱系中出现了少量的多样性改变。
有证据表明,在 2022 年疫情暴发前,有持续性人类传播,但尚无针对提高人类传播适应性的明确证据。[54]UK Health Security Agency. Monkeypox outbreak: technical briefings. September 2024 [internet publication]. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/monkeypox-outbreak-technical-briefings [56]Jolly B, Scaria V. A distinct phylogenetic cluster of monkeypox genomes suggests an early and cryptic spread of the virus. J Infect. 2023 Jan;86(1):e24-6. https://www.journalofinfection.com/article/S0163-4453(22)00476-5/fulltext http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35995311?tool=bestpractice.com [57]Chmel M, Bartoš O, Kabíčková H, et al. Retrospective analysis revealed an April occurrence of monkeypox in the Czech Republic. Viruses. 2022 Aug 15;14(8):1773. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9412638 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36016395?tool=bestpractice.com
需要进一步的研究以确定观察到的基因组变化是否导致表型变化(例如,传播性增强、毒力增强、免疫逃逸、抗病毒耐药性增强)。
动物与人之间的传播
在 2022 年分支 Ⅱ 所致全球 mpox 暴发之前,人畜共患传播是主要的传播途径(发生于 62% 的病例),尤其是在流行国家。[58]Sukhdeo S, Mishra S, Walmsley S. Human monkeypox: a comparison of the characteristics of the new epidemic to the endemic disease. BMC Infect Dis. 2022 Dec 12;22(1):928. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9742013 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36503476?tool=bestpractice.com [59]Hatami H, Jamshidi P, Arbabi M, et al. Demographic, epidemiologic, and clinical characteristics of human Monkeypox disease pre- and post-2022 Outbreaks: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Biomedicines. 2023 Mar 20;11(3):957. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10045775 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36979936?tool=bestpractice.com
该病毒可从不同的野生动物(例如猴和啮齿类动物)传播至人类,但其天然宿主未知。动物至人类的传播可通过以下途径发生:被受感染动物叮咬或者挠抓;在猎取、捕获、剥皮、烹饪或摄入受感染动物等活动期间;或者接触受感染动物的体液。尚不清楚病毒在动物群体中的传播程度。[1]World Health Organization. Clinical management and infection prevention and control for monkeypox: interim rapid response guidance, 10 June 2022. Jun 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-MPX-Clinical-and-IPC-2022.1
人畜间传播(反向人畜共患病)尚未见报道,但理论上存在该风险。[60]Haddad N. The presumed receptivity and susceptibility to monkeypox of European animal species. Infect Dis Now. 2022 Aug;52(5):294-8. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666991922001221?via%3Dihub http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35753629?tool=bestpractice.com
人际传播
人际传播通过直接接触传染性皮肤或黏膜病变处以及呼吸道飞沫发生(可能通过短距离气溶胶传播,这需要长期密切接触)。污染物传播(例如来自受污染的衣物或织物)和围产期传播也有可能。[1]World Health Organization. Clinical management and infection prevention and control for monkeypox: interim rapid response guidance, 10 June 2022. Jun 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-MPX-Clinical-and-IPC-2022.1 [61]Pinto P, Costa MA, Gonçalves MFM, et al. Mpox person-to-person transmission-where have we got so far? a systematic review. Viruses. 2023 Apr 28;15(5):1074. https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/15/5/1074 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/37243160?tool=bestpractice.com
性接触是近期疫情暴发中传播的主要驱动因素。在 2022 年全球分支 Ⅱ 型 mpox 暴发中,几乎所有病例都存在人际接触史,尤其是性接触,但也有少数病例的传播途径不明。[59]Hatami H, Jamshidi P, Arbabi M, et al. Demographic, epidemiologic, and clinical characteristics of human Monkeypox disease pre- and post-2022 Outbreaks: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Biomedicines. 2023 Mar 20;11(3):957. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10045775 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36979936?tool=bestpractice.com [62]UK Health Security Agency. Research and analysis Mpox: transmission, and infectious and incubation periods. Mar 2023 [internet publication]. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/mpox-transmission-and-infectious-and-incubation-periods 2023 年 11 月,在刚果民主共和国首次报告了一起与性接触相关的分支 Ⅰb 聚集性感染(与商业性性工作相关的异性性行为传播,以及男男性行为人群中小规模聚集性病例)。[27]World Health Organization. Disease outbreak news: mpox (monkeypox) - Democratic Republic of the Congo. Nov 2023 [internet publication]. https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease-outbreak-news/item/2023-DON493 [63]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Clade I–associated mpox cases associated with sexual contact, the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Nov 2023 [internet publication]. https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/30/1/23-1164_article [64]Kibungu EM, Vakaniaki EH, Kinganda-Lusamaki E, et al. Clade I-associated mpox cases associated with sexual contact, the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Emerg Infect Dis. 2024 Jan;30(1):172-6. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10756366 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/38019211?tool=bestpractice.com
通过直接接触病损传播
现有证据表明,2022 年全球分支 Ⅱ 型 mpox 暴发中的主要传播方式为在与猴痘患者的性交过程中密切接触其皮肤或黏膜病变处。[62]UK Health Security Agency. Research and analysis Mpox: transmission, and infectious and incubation periods. Mar 2023 [internet publication]. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/mpox-transmission-and-infectious-and-incubation-periods [65]Vanhamel J, Laisnez V, Liesenborghs L, et al. Understanding sexual transmission dynamics and transmission contexts of monkeypox virus: a mixed-methods study of the early outbreak in Belgium (May-June 2022). Sex Transm Infect. 2022 Nov 17 [Epub ahead of print]. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36396173?tool=bestpractice.com
大约 74% 的患者报告在诊断前 21 日内有性行为。[15]Kumar R, Singh S, Singh SK. A systematic review of 5110 cases of monkeypox: what has changed between 1970 and 2022? Cureus. 2022 Oct;14(10):e30841. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9704117 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36451652?tool=bestpractice.com 然而,亦有少数病例无性暴露史。[66]Karan A, Styczynski AR, Huang C, et al. Human monkeypox without viral prodrome or sexual exposure, California, USA, 2022. Emerg Infect Dis. 2022 Aug 16;28(10). https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/28/10/22-1191_article http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35971952?tool=bestpractice.com [67]Hernandez LE, Jadoo A, Kirsner RS. Human monkeypox virus infection in an immunocompromised man: trial with tecovirimat. Lancet. 2022 Sep 10;400(10355):e8. https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(22)01528-8/fulltext http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36088950?tool=bestpractice.com 在女性中,25% 的感染与性传播(即家庭或职业传播)无关,这一比例显著高于男性。[39]Thornhill JP, Palich R, Ghosn J, et al. Human monkeypox virus infection in women and non-binary individuals during the 2022 outbreaks: a global case series. Lancet. 2022 Dec 3;400(10367):1953-65. https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(22)02187-0/fulltext http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36403584?tool=bestpractice.com 家庭密切接触是儿童最常见的传播途径。[68]Saunders KE, Van Horn AN, Medlin HK, et al. Monkeypox in a young infant: Florida, 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2022 Sep 23;71(38):1220-1. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/71/wr/mm7138e3.htm http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36136958?tool=bestpractice.com [69]Aguilera-Alonso D, Alonso-Cadenas JA, Roguera-Sopena M, et al. Monkeypox virus infections in children in Spain during the first months of the 2022 outbreak. Lancet Child Adolesc Health. 2022 Nov;6(11):e22-3. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9555952 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36058226?tool=bestpractice.com
皮肤接触可能是主要的传播方式,而不是通过呼吸途径或接触体液传播,因为与喉、鼻咽、血液和尿液样本相比,皮肤和肛门生殖器样本中的病毒载量更高。[70]Reda A, Abdelaal A, Brakat AM, et al. Monkeypox viral detection in semen specimens of confirmed cases: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Med Virol. 2022 Oct 22:e28250. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jmv.28250 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36271741?tool=bestpractice.com [71]Palich R, Burrel S, Monsel G, et al. Viral loads in clinical samples of men with monkeypox virus infection: a French case series. Lancet Infect Dis. 2023 Jan;23(1):74-80. https://www.thelancet.com/journals/laninf/article/PIIS1473-3099(22)00586-2/fulltext http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36183707?tool=bestpractice.com [72]Lim CK, McKenzie C, Deerain J, et al. Correlation between monkeypox viral load and infectious virus in clinical specimens. J Clin Virol. 2023 Apr;161:105421. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9981273 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36893717?tool=bestpractice.com [73]Rani I, Goyal A, Shamim MA, et al. Prevalence of mpox viral DNA in cutaneous specimens of monkeypox-infected patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2023;13:1179885. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcimb.2023.1179885/full http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/37457957?tool=bestpractice.com
在最近的疫情爆发前,几乎没有关于性传播的数据。[15]Kumar R, Singh S, Singh SK. A systematic review of 5110 cases of monkeypox: what has changed between 1970 and 2022? Cureus. 2022 Oct;14(10):e30841. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9704117 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36451652?tool=bestpractice.com
通过接触体液传播
为进一步了解通过接触体液的传播,还需更多信息。[1]World Health Organization. Clinical management and infection prevention and control for monkeypox: interim rapid response guidance, 10 June 2022. Jun 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-MPX-Clinical-and-IPC-2022.1 尽管已知性行为期间的密切身体接触可导致传播,但是尚不清楚性行为期间的体液在传播方面的作用(如果存在作用)。[74]World Health Organization. Multi-country monkeypox outbreak: situation update. 27 June 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease-outbreak-news/item/2022-DON396 [75]Sah R, Abdelaal A, Reda A, et al. Monkeypox and its possible sexual transmission: where are we now with its evidence? Pathogens. 2022 Aug 17;11(8):924. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9414346 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36015044?tool=bestpractice.com
已在精液、血液、血清、血浆、粪便、尿液和唾液等多种体液中检测到该病毒。[62]UK Health Security Agency. Research and analysis Mpox: transmission, and infectious and incubation periods. Mar 2023 [internet publication]. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/mpox-transmission-and-infectious-and-incubation-periods [76]Barboza JJ, León-Figueroa DA, Saldaña-Cumpa HM, et al. Virus Identification for Monkeypox in Human Seminal Fluid Samples: A Systematic Review. Trop Med Infect Dis. 2023 Mar 14;8(3):173. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10057446 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36977174?tool=bestpractice.com 对样本进行分析发现,在患病的最初 2 周和症状出现后长达 16 日内,在各种体液中都有猴痘病毒的脱落。在整个感染病程中,精液中的病毒载量通常很低。[77]Peiró-Mestres A, Fuertes I, Camprubí-Ferrer D, et al. Frequent detection of monkeypox virus DNA in saliva, semen, and other clinical samples from 12 patients, Barcelona, Spain, May to June 2022. Euro Surveill. 2022 Jul;27(28):2200503. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9284919 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35837964?tool=bestpractice.com [78]Suñer C, Ubals M, Tarín-Vicente EJ, et al. Viral dynamics in patients with monkeypox infection: a prospective cohort study in Spain. Lancet Infect Dis. 2022 Dec 12 [Epub ahead of print]. https://www.thelancet.com/journals/laninf/article/PIIS1473-3099(22)00794-0/fulltext http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36521505?tool=bestpractice.com 需要对这些体液的感染潜力及其在疾病传播中的潜在作用进行进一步研究。
目前还没有通过人类来源的物质发生传播的确诊病例记录。[79]European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. Monkeypox multi-country outbreak: second update. October 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications-data/monkeypox-multi-country-outbreak-second-update
通过呼吸道飞沫和气溶胶传播
为进一步了解通过呼吸道飞沫和气溶胶的传播,还需更多信息。[1]World Health Organization. Clinical management and infection prevention and control for monkeypox: interim rapid response guidance, 10 June 2022. Jun 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-MPX-Clinical-and-IPC-2022.1
从理论上讲,空气传播是一个问题,但目前尚无关于经空气传播的确诊病例报告。尽管有可能,但经呼吸道传播的风险似乎很低。[54]UK Health Security Agency. Monkeypox outbreak: technical briefings. September 2024 [internet publication]. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/monkeypox-outbreak-technical-briefings [62]UK Health Security Agency. Research and analysis Mpox: transmission, and infectious and incubation periods. Mar 2023 [internet publication]. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/mpox-transmission-and-infectious-and-incubation-periods [80]Beeson A, Styczynski A, Hutson CL, et al. Mpox respiratory transmission: the state of the evidence. Lancet Microbe. 2023 Apr;4(4):e277-83. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666524723000344?via%3Dihub http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36898398?tool=bestpractice.com
通过污染物传播
污染物传播不常见,但并非无可能。通过接触被污染表面或物体而感染的风险被认为较低。 在没有任何流行病学危险因素的病例中,可怀疑污染物传播,但这很难确认。[81]Siedner MJ, Trinidad J, Berto CG, et al. Mpox in young woman with no epidemiologic risk factors, Massachusetts, USA. Emerg Infect Dis. 2023 Jan 25;29(4). https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/29/4/22-1921_article http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36696625?tool=bestpractice.com
已在感染病例所在家庭和医院环境中物体、表面和空气样本(来自更换床上用品时空气中的皮肤颗粒)检出猴痘病毒 DNA,在某些研究中检测到活病毒,但未在其他研究中检测到。[82]Nörz D, Pfefferle S, Brehm TT, et al. Evidence of surface contamination in hospital rooms occupied by patients infected with monkeypox, Germany, June 2022. Euro Surveill. 2022 Jun;27(26). https://www.eurosurveillance.org/content/10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2022.27.26.2200477 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35775427?tool=bestpractice.com [83]Atkinson B, Burton C, Pottage T, et al. Infection-competent monkeypox virus contamination identified in domestic settings following an imported case of monkeypox into the UK. Environ Microbiol. 2022 Oct;24(10):4561-9. https://sfamjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1462-2920.16129 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35837859?tool=bestpractice.com [84]Morgan CN, Whitehill F, Doty JB, et al. Environmental persistence of monkeypox virus on surfaces in household of person with travel-associated infection, Dallas, Texas, USA, 2021. Emerg Infect Dis. 2022 Aug 11;28(10). https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/28/10/22-1047_article http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35951009?tool=bestpractice.com [85]Muller MP, Mishra S, McGeer A, et al. Environmental testing of surfaces in the room of a patient with mpox. Clin Infect Dis. 2023 Jan 6;76(1):179-81. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35982540?tool=bestpractice.com [86]Pfeiffer JA, Collingwood A, Rider LE, et al. High-contact object and surface contamination in a household of persons with monkeypox virus infection: Utah, June 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2022 Aug 26;71(34):1092-4. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/71/wr/mm7134e1.htm http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36006842?tool=bestpractice.com [87]Atkinson B, Gould S, Spencer A, et al. Monkeypox virus contamination in an office-based workplace environment. J Hosp Infect. 2022 Dec;130:141-3. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9428113 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36055524?tool=bestpractice.com [88]Gould S, Atkinson B, Onianwa O, et al. Air and surface sampling for monkeypox virus in a UK hospital: an observational study. Lancet Microbe. 2022 Dec;3(12):e904-11. https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanmic/article/PIIS2666-5247(22)00257-9/fulltext http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36215984?tool=bestpractice.com 然而,样本中检出具有复制能力的病毒并不意味着会发生传播或感染,仍有待开展进一步研究。
围产期传播
已有关于围产期传播的报道。[89]Ramnarayan P, Mitting R, Whittaker E, et al. Neonatal monkeypox virus infection. N Engl J Med. 2022 Oct 27;387(17):1618-20. https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMc2210828 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36223535?tool=bestpractice.com 没有充分证据确定是否可通过母乳喂养传播。[90]Van de Perre P, Molès JP, Rollins N. Is monkeypox virus transmissible by breastfeeding? Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 2022 Oct;33(10):e13861. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/pai.13861 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36282140?tool=bestpractice.com 但已有一例母乳喂养婴儿猴痘病例的报道,很可能是通过皮肤接触传播。[91]Alonso-Cadenas JA, Andina-Martínez D, García-García CJ, et al. Monkeypox disease in a breastfeeding infant. Pediatr Dermatol. 2022 Sep 30 [Epub ahead of print]. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36180382?tool=bestpractice.com
无症状和症状前传播
尚不清楚无症状或症状前传播可能发生的程度。[74]World Health Organization. Multi-country monkeypox outbreak: situation update. 27 June 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease-outbreak-news/item/2022-DON396 [92]Satapathy P, Mohanty P, Manna S, et al. Potentially asymptomatic infection of monkeypox virus: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Vaccines (Basel). 2022 Dec 6;10(12):2083. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9784491 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36560493?tool=bestpractice.com
已证实在症状出现之前可发生具有复制能力的病毒脱落,以及在症状出现前就可发生病毒传播。[93]Ward T, Christie R, Paton RS, et al. Transmission dynamics of monkeypox in the United Kingdom: contact tracing study. BMJ. 2022 Nov 2;379:e073153. https://www.bmj.com/content/379/bmj-2022-073153 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36323407?tool=bestpractice.com [94]Brosius I, Van Dijck C, Coppens J, et al. Presymptomatic viral shedding in high-risk mpox contacts: a prospective cohort study. J Med Virol. 2023 May;95(5):e28769. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jmv.28769 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/37212312?tool=bestpractice.com [95]Kubo T, Hayakawa K, Akiyama Y, et al. A case of confirmed pre-symptomatic transmission of mpox. J Infect Chemother. 2023 Oct;29(10):1008-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/37392843?tool=bestpractice.com 无症状感染已得到描述,但无症状感染可能呈现的程度尚不明确。[96]Fenner F, Henderson DA, Arita I, et al. Chapter 29: Human monkeypox and other poxvirus infections of man. In: Smallpox and its eradication. Geneva: World Health Organization; 1988. http://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/39485 [97]Reda A, El-Qushayri AE, Shah J. Asymptomatic monkeypox infection: a call for greater control of infection and transmission. Lancet Microbe. 2023 Jan;4(1):e15-6. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9536807 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36209756?tool=bestpractice.com
一些小型观察性研究在少数肛门直肠样本聚合酶链反应检测呈阳性的男性中发现了无症状感染病例。[98]Ferré VM, Bachelard A, Zaidi M, et al. Detection of monkeypox virus in anorectal swabs from asymptomatic men who have sex with men in a sexually transmitted infection screening program in Paris, France. Ann Intern Med. 2022 Oct;175(10):1491-2. https://www.acpjournals.org/doi/10.7326/M22-2183 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35969863?tool=bestpractice.com [99]Moschese D, Pozza G, Mileto D, et al. Isolation of viable monkeypox virus from anal and urethral swabs, Italy, May to July 2022. Euro Surveill. 2022 Sep;27(36). https://www.eurosurveillance.org/content/10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2022.27.36.2200675 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36082684?tool=bestpractice.com [100]Cassir N, Cardona F, Tissot-Dupont H, et al. Observational cohort study of evolving epidemiologic, clinical, and virologic features of monkeypox in Southern France. Emerg Infect Dis. 2022 Oct 14;28(12). https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/28/12/22-1440_article http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36241422?tool=bestpractice.com
无症状感染可能是病毒持续传播的一个因素,从而导致散发病例和聚集性病例的出现。[101]Accordini S, Cordioli M, Pomari E, et al. People with asymptomatic or unrecognised infection potentially contribute to monkeypox virus transmission. Lancet Microbe. 2023 Apr;4(4):e209. https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanmic/article/PIIS2666-5247(22)00379-2/fulltext 然而,对无症状的高危人群进行筛查发现的感染率非常低,这表明未被发现的感染不太可能是传播的主要驱动因素。[102]Rossotti R, Calzavara D, Cernuschi M, et al. Detection of asymptomatic mpox carriers among high-ri men who have sex with men: a prospective analysis. Pathogens. 2023 Jun 3;12(6):798. https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/12/6/798 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/37375488?tool=bestpractice.com [103]Pitt-Kendall R, Foster C, Rayment M, et al. Retrospective testing for mpox virus in routine STI screens from men who have sex with men in England, August-October 2022. Sex Transm Infect. 2023 Aug 3:sextrans-2023-055841. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/37536929?tool=bestpractice.com [104]Hampel B, Farnham A, Lamothe-Molina PJ, et al. Low prevalence of asymptomatic mpox in populations at high risk. Lancet Microbe. 2023 Nov;4(11):e856. https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanmic/article/PIIS2666-5247(23)00248-3/fulltext [105]Grabmeier-Pfistershammer K, Skorepa C, Breuer M, et al. No evidence of asymptomatic monkeypox infection in a highly sexually active MSM population in Austria. HIV Med. 2023 Aug 31. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/hiv.13535 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/37652894?tool=bestpractice.com
病毒传播因素
潜伏期:通常为 6-13 日(范围为 1-21 日)。以往未知传播会发生在潜伏期。[1]World Health Organization. Clinical management and infection prevention and control for monkeypox: interim rapid response guidance, 10 June 2022. Jun 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-MPX-Clinical-and-IPC-2022.1 [11]World Health Organization. Mpox (monkeypox): fact sheet. Aug 2024 [internet publication]. https://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/monkeypox 2022 年全球分支 Ⅱ 型 mpox 暴发的数据表明,平均潜伏期约为 7 日(范围为 3-20 日),短于既往暴发的潜伏期。[106]Thornhill JP, Barkati S, Walmsley S, et al. Monkeypox virus infection in humans across 16 countries: April–June 2022. N Engl J Med. 2022 Aug 25;387(8):679-91. https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa2207323 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35866746?tool=bestpractice.com [107]Okoli GN, Van Caeseele P, Askin N, et al. Comparative evaluation of the clinical presentation and epidemiology of the 2022 and previous mpox outbreaks: a rapid review and meta-analysis. Infect Dis (Lond). 2023 Jul;55(7):490-508. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/37200216?tool=bestpractice.com
R₀(在未免疫人群中,预计由单个原发病例引起的继发病例数):根据有限的数据,历史上估计为 0.8,这意味着人与人之间的流行总是有可能消失,因为传播效率低下。[5]Beer EM, Rao VB. A systematic review of the epidemiology of human monkeypox outbreaks and implications for outbreak strategy. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2019 Oct;13(10):e0007791. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6816577 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31618206?tool=bestpractice.com 然而,在 2022 年全球分支 Ⅱ 型 mpox 暴发中,男男性行为人群(men who have sex with men, MSM)中的 R₀ 估计为>1。[108]Kwok KO, Wei WI, Tang A, et al. Estimation of local transmissibility in the early phase of monkeypox epidemic in 2022. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2022 Dec;28(12):1653.e1-3. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9675054 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35817231?tool=bestpractice.com [109]Branda F, Pierini M, Mazzoli S. Monkeypox: early estimation of basic reproduction number R0 in Europe. J Med Virol. 2022 Nov 1:e28270. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jmv.28270 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36319946?tool=bestpractice.com
续发率:历史上报告的续发率为 0.3%-10.2%,具体取决于病毒分支。然而,现有研究中,半数以上报道称续发率为 0%。[4]Bunge EM, Hoet B, Chen L, et al. The changing epidemiology of human monkeypox – a potential threat? A systematic review. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2022 Feb;16(2):e0010141. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8870502 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35148313?tool=bestpractice.com 2013 年刚果民主共和国暴发的疫情中,16 个家庭的家庭密切接触者续发率为 50%。[110]Nolen LD, Osadebe L, Katomba J, et al. Introduction of monkeypox into a community and household: risk factors and zoonotic reservoirs in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2015 Aug;93(2):410-5. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4530773 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26013374?tool=bestpractice.com 据报道,非性密切接触者病例的续发率是 1%-1.6%。[111]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Notes from the field: transmission of mpox to nonsexual close contacts - two U.S. jurisdictions, May 1–July 31, 2022. Dec 2023 [internet publication]. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/72/wr/mm7250a3.htm 由于暴发期间存在病例确认偏倚,续发率很可能被高估。[5]Beer EM, Rao VB. A systematic review of the epidemiology of human monkeypox outbreaks and implications for outbreak strategy. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2019 Oct;13(10):e0007791. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6816577 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31618206?tool=bestpractice.com 民航飞机上的传播风险似乎很低,在受感染旅客的邻座乘客中尚未发现继发性病例。[112]Delea KC, Chen TH, Lavilla K, et al. Contact tracing for mpox clade II cases associated with air travel - United States, July 2021-August 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2024 Sep 5;73(35):758-62. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11376505 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/39235998?tool=bestpractice.com 然而,可用于评估该风险的证据有限。
病理生理学
关于病理生理学的数据有限。[96]Fenner F, Henderson DA, Arita I, et al. Chapter 29: Human monkeypox and other poxvirus infections of man. In: Smallpox and its eradication. Geneva: World Health Organization; 1988. http://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/39485 病毒进入后,病毒在接种部位(例如,皮肤或呼吸道途径)复制。该病毒可感染呼吸道的上皮细胞、树突细胞和巨噬细胞,或皮肤的角质形成细胞、成纤维细胞、朗格汉斯细胞、树突细胞和巨噬细胞。病毒与宿主细胞表面糖胺聚糖结合,发生内吞作用进入细胞。感染细胞行进至附近的引流区淋巴结(原发性病毒血症)。病毒通过循环到达远处的淋巴结和器官。此感染阶段无症状。在前驱期,从淋巴器官到皮肤和其他器官(例如眼、肺、胃肠道、性腺)发生继发性病毒血症,并在触发免疫系统后出现非特异性症状。皮肤和黏膜的感染导致出现脓疱和溃疡。[113]Kaler J, Hussain A, Flores G, et al. Monkeypox: a comprehensive review of transmission, pathogenesis, and manifestation. Cureus. 2022 Jul;14(7):e26531. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9345383 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35928395?tool=bestpractice.com [114]Lum FM, Torres-Ruesta A, Tay MZ, et al. Monkeypox: disease epidemiology, host immunity and clinical interventions. Nat Rev Immunol. 2022 Oct;22(10):597-613. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9443635 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36064780?tool=bestpractice.com [115]Al-Musa A, Chou J, LaBere B. The resurgence of a neglected orthopoxvirus: Immunologic and clinical aspects of monkeypox virus infections over the past six decades. Clin Immunol. 2022 Oct;243:109108. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1521661622001899 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36067982?tool=bestpractice.com 对病理生理学的详细讨论不在本专题范围内。
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