吸烟或其他显著的烟雾暴露,可以见于大多数慢阻肺患者。烟草中的成分导致肺上皮细胞之间的紧密连接的完整性受损,[38]Jones JG, Minty BD, Lawler P, et al. Increased alveolar epithelial permeability in cigarette smokers. Lancet. 1980 Jan 12;1(8159):66-8.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6101416?tool=bestpractice.com
刺激炎症反应,并且已经表明可降低呼吸道黏液纤毛清除能力,增加病原微生物对正常无菌下呼吸道的穿透能力。[39]Sethi S, Murphy TF. Bacterial infection in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in 2000: a state-of-the-art review. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2001 Apr;14(2):336-63.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC88978
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11292642?tool=bestpractice.com
[40]Barnes PJ. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N Engl J Med. 2000 Jul 27;343(4):269-80.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10911010?tool=bestpractice.com
[41]Stockley RA. Progression of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: impact of inflammation, comorbidities and therapeutic intervention. Curr Med Res Opin. 2009 May;25(5):1235-45.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19335322?tool=bestpractice.com
微生物的存在导致抗原形成,刺激先天和适应性免疫反应。[42]Sethi S, Murphy TF. Infection in the pathogenesis and course of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N Engl J Med. 2008 Nov 27;359(22):2355-65.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19038881?tool=bestpractice.com
随着时间推移,吸烟的慢性刺激和炎症反应导致肺气肿、气道黏液腺增生、小气道纤维化和肺弹性回缩力的下降。[43]Barnes PJ. Mechanisms in COPD: differences from asthma. Chest. 2000 Feb;117(2 Suppl):10S-4S.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10673467?tool=bestpractice.com
由于炎症、水肿和粘液高分泌导致的弹性回缩力下降(由肺气肿所致)和/或小气道阻塞引起 FEV1 和 FEV1/FVC 下降。[44]Hogg JC. Pathophysiology of airflow limitation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Lancet. 2004 Aug 21-27;364(9435):709-21.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15325838?tool=bestpractice.com
气流受限引起的过度充气是呼吸困难的主要原因。[45]Lougheed DM, Webb KA, O'Donnell DE. Breathlessness during induced lung hyperinflation in asthma: the role of the inspiratory threshold load. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1995 Sep;152(3):911-20.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7663804?tool=bestpractice.com
和哮喘不同,慢阻肺的气流受限不能通过药物治疗完全逆转。[46]Pauwels RA, Buist AS, Calverley PM, et al. Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. NHLBI/WHO Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD) Workshop summary. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001 Apr;163(5):1256-76.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11316667?tool=bestpractice.com
此外,尽管哮喘和慢阻肺的发病机制都是炎症,但特异炎症过程在二者是不同的。[12]Seemungal TA, Donaldson GC, Paul EA, et al. Effect of exacerbation on quality of life in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998 May;157(5 Pt 1):1418-22.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9603117?tool=bestpractice.com
但是在一定数量的慢阻肺患者,支气管舒张剂治疗后气流阻塞部分是可逆的。[47]Tashkin DP, Celli B, Decramer M, et al. Bronchodilator responsiveness in patients with COPD. Eur Respir J. 2008 Apr;31(4):742-50.
https://erj.ersjournals.com/content/31/4/742.long
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18256071?tool=bestpractice.com
实际上,吸入支气管舒张剂(β2-受体激动剂和抗胆碱能药物)是所有慢阻肺患者的主要治疗药物之一,因为除了支气管舒张作用之外,它们还有降低动态过度充气的作用。[48]Belman MJ, Botnick WC, Shin JW. Inhaled bronchodilators reduce dynamic hyperinflation during exercise in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1996 Mar;153(3):967-75.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8630581?tool=bestpractice.com
[49]Celli B, ZuWallack R, Wang S, et al. Improvement in resting inspiratory capacity and hyperinflation with tiotropium in COPD patients with increased static lung volumes. Chest. 2003 Nov;124(5):1743-8.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14605043?tool=bestpractice.com
COPD 急性加重可以被定义为“呼吸道症状急性恶化(例如呼吸困难、咳嗽、有痰),导致需要进行额外的治疗”。[1]Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease. Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: 2021 report. 2021 [internet publication].
https://goldcopd.org/2021-gold-reports
这种病情恶化可能是因感染、空气污染和/或其他因素诱发的气道炎症细胞和蛋白质增加所致。[29]Hogg JC, Chu F, Utokaparch S, et al. The nature of small-airway obstruction in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N Engl J Med. 2004 Jun 24;350(26):2645-53.
https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMoa032158
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15215480?tool=bestpractice.com
[50]Papi A, Bellettato CM, Braccioni F, et al. Infections and airway inflammation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease severe exacerbations. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2006 May 15;173(10):1114-21.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16484677?tool=bestpractice.com
[51]Wedzicha JA, Seemungal TA. COPD exacerbations: defining their cause and prevention. Lancet. 2007 Sep 1;370(9589):786-96.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17765528?tool=bestpractice.com
[52]Hurst JR, Wedzicha JA. The biology of a chronic obstructive pulmonary disease exacerbation. Clin Chest Med. 2007 Sep;28(3):525-36.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17720041?tool=bestpractice.com
慢性炎症反应的急性加重和/或并发的支气管痉挛导致呼气气流受限加重。[14]O'Donnell DE, Parker CM. COPD exacerbations. 3: Pathophysiology. Thorax. 2006 Apr;61(4):354-61.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2104611
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16565268?tool=bestpractice.com
呼气气流受限的加重导致呼吸阻力增加,通气/血流比例失衡增加,气体交换障碍。它还导致过度充气增加,从而进一步加重肺力学的恶化,导致功能受损和呼吸肌疲劳。[14]O'Donnell DE, Parker CM. COPD exacerbations. 3: Pathophysiology. Thorax. 2006 Apr;61(4):354-61.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2104611
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16565268?tool=bestpractice.com
由于慢阻肺急性加重患者不易获得组织标本,同时诱因多变,因此对急性加重时的炎症反应并不完全了解。
急性加重对慢阻肺患者活动水平、功能状态和生活质量产生重要影响。[1]Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease. Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: 2021 report. 2021 [internet publication].
https://goldcopd.org/2021-gold-reports
[12]Seemungal TA, Donaldson GC, Paul EA, et al. Effect of exacerbation on quality of life in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998 May;157(5 Pt 1):1418-22.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9603117?tool=bestpractice.com
[53]Giacomini M, DeJean D, Simeonov D, et al. Experiences of living and dying with COPD: a systematic review and synthesis of the qualitative empirical literature. Ont Health Technol Assess Ser. 2012;12(13):1-47.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3384365
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23074423?tool=bestpractice.com
此外,急性加重的恢复可能需要很长时间,部分患者再也不能恢复到之前的肺功能水平和/或功能状态。[11]Seemungal TA, Donaldson GC, Bhowmik A, et al. Time course and recovery of exacerbations in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000 May;161(5):1608-13.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10806163?tool=bestpractice.com
有证据表明,随着 COPD 的进展,加重不仅倾向于越来越频繁和越来越严重,[54]Burge S, Wedzicha JA. COPD exacerbations: definitions and classifications. Eur Respir J Suppl. 2003 Jun;41:46s-53s.
https://erj.ersjournals.com/content/21/41_suppl/46s.long
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12795331?tool=bestpractice.com
[55]Hurst JR, Vestbo J, Anzueto A, et al. Susceptibility to exacerbation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N Engl J Med. 2010 Sep 16;363(12):1128-38.
https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMoa0909883
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20843247?tool=bestpractice.com
而且本身还可能加速 COPD 患者的肺功能下降。[22]Donaldson GC, Seemungal TA, Bhowmik A, et al. Relationship between exacerbation frequency and lung function decline in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax. 2002 Oct;57(10):847-52.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1746193
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12324669?tool=bestpractice.com
实际上,部分患者是慢阻肺急性加重的高危人群(如,易感性增加的表型),与疾病严重程度无关。[55]Hurst JR, Vestbo J, Anzueto A, et al. Susceptibility to exacerbation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N Engl J Med. 2010 Sep 16;363(12):1128-38.
https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMoa0909883
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20843247?tool=bestpractice.com
目前推荐的慢阻肺患者的评估包括气流阻塞严重程度的判断、症状评估和急性加重的风险评估。有重度或极重度气流阻塞,或前一年有过 2 次或以上的加重,或前一年因加重而住院治疗的患者,被认为日后加重风险高。[1]Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease. Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: 2021 report. 2021 [internet publication].
https://goldcopd.org/2021-gold-reports
其他一些因素也与慢阻肺急性加重和/或住院相关。[56]Niewoehner DE, Lokhnygina Y, Rice K, et al. Risk indexes for exacerbations and hospitalizations due to COPD. Chest. 2007 Jan;131(1):20-8.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17218552?tool=bestpractice.com
[57]Foreman MG, DeMeo DL, Hersh CP, et al. Clinical determinants of exacerbations in severe, early-onset COPD. Eur Respir J. 2007 Dec;30(6):1124-30.
https://erj.ersjournals.com/content/30/6/1124.long
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17715170?tool=bestpractice.com
慢阻肺急性加重,特别是那些需要住院的患者,与病死率增加以及医疗资源花费增加相关。[1]Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease. Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: 2021 report. 2021 [internet publication].
https://goldcopd.org/2021-gold-reports