病史和体格检查
关键诊断因素
常见
呼吸困难
急性加重的患者经常出现超出基线水平的呼吸困难症状持续加重,且超出日间变异。[11]Seemungal TA, Donaldson GC, Bhowmik A, et al. Time course and recovery of exacerbations in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000 May;161(5):1608-13. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10806163?tool=bestpractice.com
咳嗽
咳嗽性质和频率的变化常见[11]Seemungal TA, Donaldson GC, Bhowmik A, et al. Time course and recovery of exacerbations in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000 May;161(5):1608-13. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10806163?tool=bestpractice.com 这种变化应超出患者典型咳嗽的日间变异。[1]Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease. Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: 2021 report. 2021 [internet publication]. https://goldcopd.org/2021-gold-reports
喘鸣
所有慢阻肺患者都存在呼气气流受限,这会导致喘息。出现急性加重的患者可能出现喘息的程度加重和体检时呼气相延长。但是,很多患者不出现喘息。
痰量/颜色/黏稠度的变化
痰量或性质(黏稠度、颜色)的变化常见。存在脓性痰对确定存在细菌高负荷的敏感性和特异性较高,有助于识别出最有可能从抗菌药物治疗获益的患者人群。[177]Stockley RA, O'Brien C, Pye A, et al. Relationship of sputum color to nature and outpatient management of acute exacerbations of COPD. Chest. 2000;117:1638-1645. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10858396?tool=bestpractice.com [178]Gompertz S, O'Brien C, Bayley DL, et al. Changes in bronchial inflammation during acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Eur Respir J. 2001;17:1112-1119. http://erj.ersjournals.com/cgi/content/full/17/6/1112 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11491152?tool=bestpractice.com
呼吸急促
呼吸增快常见,可能很严重。很重要的是要观察患者有无呼吸衰竭的体征。
不常见
紫绀
即将出现呼吸衰竭的可能体征。
其他诊断因素
常见
慢阻肺既往史
应该询问慢阻肺患者的既往史,以及鉴别诊断时应该考虑其他可能出现急性问题的情况。前一年有过 2 次或以上加重,或前一年因加重而住院治疗的患者,被认为日后加重风险高。[1]Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease. Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: 2021 report. 2021 [internet publication]. https://goldcopd.org/2021-gold-reports
吸烟
很重要的是明确患者是否有吸烟史以及他们是否现在吸烟。
既往胃食管反流和/或吞咽功能障碍病史
很重要的是明确患者有无烧心、口苦、进食后咳嗽或窒息、食管裂孔疝、和/或胃食管反流或吞咽困难的病史。[65]Terada K, Muro S, Sato S, et al. Impact of gastro-oesophageal reflux disease symptoms on COPD exacerbation. Thorax. 2008 Nov;63(11):951-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18535116?tool=bestpractice.com [66]Terada K, Muro S, Ohara T, et al. Abnormal swallowing reflex and COPD exacerbations. Chest. 2010 Feb;137(2):326-32. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783670?tool=bestpractice.com 但是,尽管患者没有上述典型的胃食管反流的症状和体征,胃食管反流也应该作为反复急性加重患者的潜在病因。
目前没有研究表明治疗反流能否改善 COPD 的加重。
不适感和疲劳
慢阻肺急性加重的患者经常出现这些症状和其他非特异性症状,如失眠、活动度下降、食欲减退。[173]Pauwels R, Calverley P, Buist AS, et al. COPD exacerbations: the importance of a standard definition. Respir Med. 2004 Feb;98(2):99-107. https://www.resmedjournal.com/article/S0954-6111(03)00304-4/fulltext http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14971871?tool=bestpractice.com [176]Bestall JC, Paul EA, Garrod R, et al. Usefulness of the Medical Research Council (MRC) dyspnoea scale as a measure of disability in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax. 1999 Jul;54(7):581-6. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1745516 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10377201?tool=bestpractice.com
尽管这些症状对患者的生活质量有重要影响,但它们不用于判断是否存在急性加重。
胸闷
可能是由于气流受限和胸部过度充气加重所致。[14]O'Donnell DE, Parker CM. COPD exacerbations. 3: Pathophysiology. Thorax. 2006 Apr;61(4):354-61. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2104611 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16565268?tool=bestpractice.com 但是,如果出现明显的胸闷或其他胸部不适,应该考虑心肌梗死或气胸的可能性。
肺心病的特征
由于急性加重导致的低氧血症所致的低氧性血管收缩增强发展而来。这一结果导致肺血管阻力增加和/或肺动脉压力增加引起急性右心衰竭,可以表现出颈静脉压力增高、肝颈静脉回流征、外周水肿和相对性低血压。
不常见
环境/职业暴露于污染物或粉尘
应该明确患者是否有明确的黑烟暴露病史,例如木材燃烧烟雾、粉尘和/或其他污染物。
精神状态改变
包括嗜睡、意识混乱和/或个性改变
发热
细菌感染的征象(基于痰液脓性和/或痰液量增加)可被视为应用抗微生物药物治疗的指征。[1]Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease. Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: 2021 report. 2021 [internet publication]. https://goldcopd.org/2021-gold-reports 通常,<50% 的急性加重患者出现发热。[31]Woodhead M, Blasi F, Ewig S, et al. Guidelines for the management of adult lower respiratory tract infections - full version. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2011 Nov;17 Suppl 6:E1-59. https://www.clinicalmicrobiologyandinfection.com/article/S1198-743X(14)61404-X/fulltext http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21951385?tool=bestpractice.com [35]Martinello RA, Esper F, Weibel C, et al. Human metapneumovirus and exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. J Infect. 2006 Oct;53(4):248-54. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16412516?tool=bestpractice.com [58]Soler N, Agusti C, Angrill J, et al. Bronchoscopic validation of the significance of sputum purulence in severe exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax. 2007 Jan;62(1):29-35. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2111274 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16928715?tool=bestpractice.com
存在高热和/或持续发热提示可能存在细菌性肺炎或流感病毒感染。
辅助呼吸肌参与呼吸
提示即将发生呼吸衰竭
腹部矛盾运动
提示即将发生呼吸衰竭
危险因素
强
细菌感染
细菌是慢阻肺急性加重的主要原因。有证据显示脓性痰多和下呼吸道细菌感染相关。[58]Soler N, Agusti C, Angrill J, et al. Bronchoscopic validation of the significance of sputum purulence in severe exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax. 2007 Jan;62(1):29-35. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2111274 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16928715?tool=bestpractice.com 由于慢阻肺患者的下呼吸道不是无菌的,上、下呼吸道标本培养结果的解读必须慎重。慢阻肺急性加重患者细菌菌落数是否超出基线水平目前证据不确定。[59]Wilkinson TM, Hurst JR, Perera WR, et al. Effect of interactions between lower airway bacterial and rhinoviral infection in exacerbations of COPD. Chest. 2006 Feb;129(2):317-24. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16478847?tool=bestpractice.com [60]Sethi S, Sethi R, Eschberger K, et al. Airway bacterial concentrations and exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2007 Aug 15;176(4):356-61. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17478618?tool=bestpractice.com
最常被识别出的细菌病原体包括流感嗜血杆菌、肺炎链球菌和卡他莫拉菌。[31]Woodhead M, Blasi F, Ewig S, et al. Guidelines for the management of adult lower respiratory tract infections - full version. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2011 Nov;17 Suppl 6:E1-59. https://www.clinicalmicrobiologyandinfection.com/article/S1198-743X(14)61404-X/fulltext http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21951385?tool=bestpractice.com [51]Wedzicha JA, Seemungal TA. COPD exacerbations: defining their cause and prevention. Lancet. 2007 Sep 1;370(9589):786-96. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17765528?tool=bestpractice.com 其他革兰氏阳性菌(例如金黄色葡萄球菌)和革兰氏阴性菌(例如铜绿假单胞菌)在 COPD 急性加重发病机制中的作用还不明确,但 COPD 更严重且加重更频繁和/或更严重的患者,或近期住院或近期(2 周内)每日全身性应用皮质类固醇(即泼尼松龙>10 mg/天)的患者更容易出现这些致病菌定植。[31]Woodhead M, Blasi F, Ewig S, et al. Guidelines for the management of adult lower respiratory tract infections - full version. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2011 Nov;17 Suppl 6:E1-59. https://www.clinicalmicrobiologyandinfection.com/article/S1198-743X(14)61404-X/fulltext http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21951385?tool=bestpractice.com [61]Caramori G, Adcock IM, Papi A. Clinical definition of COPD exacerbations and classification of their severity. South Med J. 2009 Mar;102(3):277-82. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19204646?tool=bestpractice.com
值得注意的是,有证据显示慢阻肺患者感染新的细菌菌株是急性加重的危险因素。[62]Sethi S, Evans N, Grant BJ, et al. New strains of bacteria and exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N Engl J Med. 2002 Aug 15;347(7):465-71. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12181400?tool=bestpractice.com 先天和/或适应性免疫反应的改变可能导致炎症和感染循环性持续存在。[42]Sethi S, Murphy TF. Infection in the pathogenesis and course of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N Engl J Med. 2008 Nov 27;359(22):2355-65. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19038881?tool=bestpractice.com
细菌和病毒性呼吸道致病菌的混合感染和更加严重的急性发作相关。[50]Papi A, Bellettato CM, Braccioni F, et al. Infections and airway inflammation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease severe exacerbations. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2006 May 15;173(10):1114-21. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16484677?tool=bestpractice.com 对中到重度急性加重的患者应用抗菌药物治疗和预后改善相关。[63]Anthonisen NR, Manfreda J, Warren CP, et al. Antibiotic therapy in exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Ann Intern Med. 1987 Feb;106(2):196-204. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3492164?tool=bestpractice.com [64]Puhan MA, Vollenweider D, Latshang T, et al. Exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: when are antibiotics indicated? A systematic review. Respir Res. 2007 Apr 4;8:30. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1853091 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17407610?tool=bestpractice.com 流感疫苗接种可能在降低铜绿假单胞菌感染风险方面具有保护作用。[31]Woodhead M, Blasi F, Ewig S, et al. Guidelines for the management of adult lower respiratory tract infections - full version. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2011 Nov;17 Suppl 6:E1-59. https://www.clinicalmicrobiologyandinfection.com/article/S1198-743X(14)61404-X/fulltext http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21951385?tool=bestpractice.com
胃食管反流和/或吞咽功能障碍
胃食管反流和吞咽功能障碍导致的误吸是慢阻肺急性加重的常见诱因。[65]Terada K, Muro S, Sato S, et al. Impact of gastro-oesophageal reflux disease symptoms on COPD exacerbation. Thorax. 2008 Nov;63(11):951-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18535116?tool=bestpractice.com [66]Terada K, Muro S, Ohara T, et al. Abnormal swallowing reflex and COPD exacerbations. Chest. 2010 Feb;137(2):326-32. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783670?tool=bestpractice.com 目前没有研究表明治疗反流能否改善 COPD 的加重。
病毒感染
估计呼吸道病毒导致 22%~50% 的急性加重。[33]Greenberg SB, Allen M, Wilson J, et al. Respiratory viral infections in adults with and without chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000 Jul;162(1):167-73. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10903237?tool=bestpractice.com
慢阻肺急性加重患者分离到的鼻病毒明显多于其他病毒。[67]Seemungal TA, Harper-Owen R, Bhowmik A, et al. Detection of rhinovirus in induced sputum at exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur Respir J. 2000 Oct;16(4):677-83. https://erj.ersjournals.com/content/erj/16/4/677.full.pdf http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11106212?tool=bestpractice.com
流感病毒、呼吸道合胞病毒、副流感病毒、冠状病毒、腺病毒和人偏肺病毒也和急性加重相关。[31]Woodhead M, Blasi F, Ewig S, et al. Guidelines for the management of adult lower respiratory tract infections - full version. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2011 Nov;17 Suppl 6:E1-59. https://www.clinicalmicrobiologyandinfection.com/article/S1198-743X(14)61404-X/fulltext http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21951385?tool=bestpractice.com [34]Beckham JD, Cadena A, Lin J, et al. Respiratory viral infections in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. J Infect. 2005 May;50(4):322-30. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15845430?tool=bestpractice.com [35]Martinello RA, Esper F, Weibel C, et al. Human metapneumovirus and exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. J Infect. 2006 Oct;53(4):248-54. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16412516?tool=bestpractice.com [68]Falsey AR, Formica MA, Hennessey PA, et al. Detection of respiratory syncytial virus in adults with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2006 Mar 15;173(6):639-43. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2662947 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16387798?tool=bestpractice.com
呼吸道病毒比其他诱因导致的急性加重更重,缓解需要的时间更长。[67]Seemungal TA, Harper-Owen R, Bhowmik A, et al. Detection of rhinovirus in induced sputum at exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur Respir J. 2000 Oct;16(4):677-83. https://erj.ersjournals.com/content/erj/16/4/677.full.pdf http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11106212?tool=bestpractice.com [69]Hurst JR, Donaldson GC, Wilkinson TM, et al. Epidemiological relationships between the common cold and exacerbation frequency in COPD. Eur Respir J. 2005 Nov;26(5):846-52. https://erj.ersjournals.com/content/26/5/846.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16264045?tool=bestpractice.com 病毒和细菌混合感染并不少见。
据推测,下呼吸道长期存在呼吸道病毒在慢阻肺发生机制中发挥作用。[70]Hogg JC. Role of latent viral infections in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001 Nov 15;164(10 Pt 2):S71-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11734471?tool=bestpractice.com
污染物
污染物水平增加,特别是二氧化氮(NO2)、二氧化硫(SO2)、臭氧(O3)和黑烟颗粒物,包括木材燃烧的烟雾,和慢阻肺患者急性加重和入院率增加相关。[71]Anderson HR, Spix C, Medina S, et al. Air pollution and daily admissions for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in 6 European cities: results from the APHEA project. Eur Respir J. 1997 May;10(5):1064-71. https://erj.ersjournals.com/content/erj/10/5/1064.full.pdf http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9163648?tool=bestpractice.com [72]Yang CY, Chen CC, Chen CY, et al. Air pollution and hospital admissions for asthma in a subtropical city: Taipei, Taiwan. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2007 Jan 15;70(2):111-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17365571?tool=bestpractice.com [73]Pope CA 3rd, Kanner RE. Acute effects of PM10 pollution on pulmonary function of smokers with mild to moderate chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1993 Jun;147(6 Pt 1):1336-40. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8503541?tool=bestpractice.com 空气污染高峰也可能增加住院率和死亡率。[74]Faustini A, Stafoggia M, Colais P, et al. Air pollution and multiple acute respiratory outcomes. Eur Respir J. 2013 Aug;42(2):304-13. https://erj.ersjournals.com/content/42/2/304.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23314899?tool=bestpractice.com
已经发现,暴露于许多这样的污染物中导致呼吸道的炎症反应。[28]Sapey E, Stockley RA. COPD exacerbations. 2: aetiology. Thorax. 2006 Mar;61(3):250-8. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2080749 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16517585?tool=bestpractice.com
弱
非典型细菌感染
非典型病原体(肺炎支原体、肺炎衣原体和军团菌)被证实与急性加重相关,但研究结果并不一致。[75]Diederen BM, van der Valk PD, Kluytmans JA, et al. The role of atypical respiratory pathogens in exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur Respir J. 2007 Aug;30(2):240-4. https://erj.ersjournals.com/content/30/2/240.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17459899?tool=bestpractice.com [76]Blasi F, Damato S, Cosentini R, et al. Chlamydia pneumoniae and chronic bronchitis: association with severity and bacterial clearance following treatment. Thorax. 2002 Aug;57(8):672-6. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1746406 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12149525?tool=bestpractice.com [77]Seemungal TA, Wedzicha JA, MacCallum PK, et al. Chlamydia pneumoniae and COPD exacerbation. Thorax. 2002 Dec;57(12):1087-8. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1758790 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12454307?tool=bestpractice.com 没有足够的证据证明覆盖非典型细菌的抗菌药物治疗可以改善预后。
天气变化
温度和湿度的变化和慢阻肺急性加重风险增高相关。[28]Sapey E, Stockley RA. COPD exacerbations. 2: aetiology. Thorax. 2006 Mar;61(3):250-8. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2080749 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16517585?tool=bestpractice.com [78]Donaldson GC, Seemungal T, Jeffries DJ, et al. Effect of temperature on lung function and symptoms in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur Respir J. 1999 Apr;13(4):844-9. https://erj.ersjournals.com/content/erj/13/4/844.full.pdf http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10362051?tool=bestpractice.com 但是,目前还不清楚环境温度和/或湿度的变化,或由于呼吸道病毒导致的感染风险变化是否和这种相关性有关。
冬季急性加重率和全因死亡率较高。[19]Rabe KF, Fabbri LM, Vogelmeier C, et al. Seasonal distribution of COPD exacerbations in the Prevention of Exacerbations with Tiotropium in COPD trial. Chest. 2013 Mar;143(3):711-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23188489?tool=bestpractice.com
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