References
Key articles
Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55.Full text Abstract
British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication].Full text
O'Driscoll BR, Howard LS, Earis J, et al. BTS guideline for oxygen use in adults in healthcare and emergency settings. Thorax. 2017 Jun;72 (suppl 1):ii1-90.Full text Abstract
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia in adults: diagnosis and management. July 2022 [internet publication].Full text
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia: diagnosis and management. Sep 2025 [internet publication].Full text
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia (community-acquired): antimicrobial prescribing. Sep 2019 [internet publication].Full text
Reference articles
1. Torres A, Peetermans WE, Viegi G, et al. Risk factors for community-acquired pneumonia in adults in Europe: a literature review. Thorax. 2013 Nov;68(11):1057-65.Full text Abstract
2. Jain S, Self WH, Wunderink RG, et al. Community-acquired pneumonia requiring hospitalization among US adults. N Engl J Med. 2015 Jul 30;373(5):415-27.Full text Abstract
3. Cillóniz C, Polverino E, Ewig S, et al. Impact of age and comorbidity on cause and outcome in community-acquired pneumonia. Chest. 2013 Sep;144(3):999-1007. Abstract
4. Masiá M, Gutiérrez F, Padilla S, et al. Clinical characterisation of pneumonia caused by atypical pathogens combining classic and novel predictors. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2007 Feb;13(2):153-61.Full text Abstract
5. Vaughn VM, Dickson RP, Horowitz JK, et al. Community-acquired pneumonia: a review. JAMA. 2024 Oct 15;332(15):1282-95. Abstract
6. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics: pneumonia. Feb 2026 [internet publication].Full text
7. Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation. Lower respiratory infections — Level 3 cause. 2019 [internet publication].Full text
8. GBD 2019 Diseases and Injuries Collaborators. Global burden of 369 diseases and injuries in 204 countries and territories, 1990-2019: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. Lancet. 2020 Oct 17;396(10258):1204-22.Full text Abstract
9. Alimi Y, Lim WS, Lansbury L, et al. Systematic review of respiratory viral pathogens identified in adults with community-acquired pneumonia in Europe. J Clin Virol. 2017 Oct;95:26-35. Abstract
10. Rice LB. Antimicrobial resistance in gram-positive bacteria. Am J Med. 2006 Jun;119(suppl 1):S11-9. Abstract
11. Cillóniz C, Ewig S, Polverino E, et al. Microbial aetiology of community-acquired pneumonia and its relation to severity. Thorax. 2011 Apr;66(4):340-6.Full text Abstract
12. Cillóniz C, Ewig S, Polverino E, et al. Community-acquired pneumonia in outpatients: aetiology and outcomes. Eur Respir J. 2012 Oct;40(4):931-8.Full text Abstract
13. Cilloniz C, Torres A, Polverino E, et al. Community-acquired lung respiratory infections in HIV-infected patients: microbial aetiology and outcome. Eur Respir J. 2014 Jun;43(6):1698-708.Full text Abstract
14. Almirall J, Boixeda R, Bolíbar I, et al. Differences in the etiology of community-acquired pneumonia according to site of care: a population-based study. Respir Med. 2007 Oct;101(10):2168-75.Full text Abstract
15. GBD 2019 Antimicrobial Resistance Collaborators. Global mortality associated with 33 bacterial pathogens in 2019: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. Lancet. 2022 Dec 17;400(10369):2221-48.Full text Abstract
16. Isturiz R, Grant L, Gray S, et al. Expanded analysis of 20 pneumococcal serotypes associated with radiographically confirmed community-acquired pneumonia in hospitalized US adults. Clin Infect Dis. 2021 Oct 5;73(7):1216-22.Full text Abstract
17. Isturiz RE, Ramirez J, Self WH, et al. Pneumococcal epidemiology among us adults hospitalized for community-acquired pneumonia. Vaccine. 2019 May 31;37(25):3352-61.Full text Abstract
18. Lansbury L, McKeever TM, Lawrence H, et al. Pneumococcal pneumonia trends in adults hospitalised with community-acquired pneumonia over 10 years (2013-2023) and the role of serotype 3. Thorax. 2025 Jan 17;80(2):86-96. Abstract
19. Marchello C, Dale AP, Thai TN, et al. Prevalence of atypical pathogens in patients with cough and community-acquired pneumonia: a meta-analysis. Ann Fam Med. 2016 Nov;14(6):552-66.Full text Abstract
20. Arnold FW, Summersgill JT, Ramirez JA. Role of atypical pathogens in the etiology of community-acquired pneumonia. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2016 Dec;37(6):819-28. Abstract
21. Garin N, Marti C, Skali Lami A, et al. Atypical pathogens in adult community-acquired pneumonia and implications for empiric antibiotic treatment: a narrative review. Microorganisms. 2022 Nov 24;10(12):2326.Full text Abstract
22. Tagini F, Opota O, Greub G. Chlamydia pneumoniae upsurge at tertiary hospital, Lausanne, Switzerland. Emerg Infect Dis. 2024 Apr;30(4):810-12.Full text Abstract
23. Graham FF, Finn N, White P, et al. Global perspective of legionella infection in community-acquired pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022 Feb 8;19(3):1907.Full text Abstract
24. Goldner B, Novaković P, Savić D. [Imaging of the lungs and heart in the diagnosis of Takayasu arteritis]. [in hrv]. Plucne Bolesti. 1987 Jan-Jun;39(1-2):90-4. Abstract
25. Spoorenberg SM, Bos WJ, van Hannen EJ, et al. Chlamydia psittaci: a relevant cause of community-acquired pneumonia in two Dutch hospitals. Neth J Med. 2016 Feb;74(2):75-81. Abstract
26. Samejima Y. [Bacteriological and histopathological studies of experimental periodontitis in rats infected with Eikenella corrodens]. [in jpn]. Nihon Shishubyo Gakkai Kaishi. 1988 Mar;30(1):33-53. Abstract
27. Prina E, Ranzani OT, Polverino E, et al. Risk factors associated with potentially antibiotic-resistant pathogens in community-acquired pneumonia. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 2015 Feb;12(2):153-60. Abstract
28. Jokinen C, Heiskanen L, Juvonen H, et al. Microbial etiology of community-acquired pneumonia in the adult population of 4 municipalities in eastern Finland. Clin Infect Dis. 2001 Apr 15;32(8):1141-54.Full text Abstract
29. Jennings LC, Anderson TP, Beynon KA, et al. Incidence and characteristics of viral community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Thorax. 2008 Jan;63(1):42-8.Full text Abstract
30. Burk M, El-Kersh K, Saad M, et al. Viral infection in community-acquired pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Respir Rev. 2016 Jun;25(140):178-88.Full text Abstract
31. Malinis M, Abbo L, Vazquez JA, et al. Community-acquired pneumonia: a US perspective on the guideline gap. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2024 May 2;79(5):959-61.Full text Abstract
32. Scobie HM, Johnson AG, Suthar AB, et al. Monitoring Incidence of COVID-19 cases, hospitalizations, and deaths, by vaccination status - 13 U.S. jurisdictions, April 4-July 17, 2021. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2021 Sep 17;70(37):1284-90.Full text Abstract
33. McLaughlin JM, Khan F, Begier E, et al. Rates of medically attended RSV among US adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2022 Jul;9(7):ofac300.Full text Abstract
34. Kim T, Huh JW, Hong SB, et al. Epidemiology and characteristics of respiratory syncytial virus pneumonia in critically ill adults. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2023 Apr;10(4):ofad131.Full text Abstract
35. Wunderink RG, Waterer G. Advances in the causes and management of community acquired pneumonia in adults. BMJ. 2017 Jul 10;358:j2471. Abstract
36. Cillóniz C, Dominedò C, Magdaleno D, et al. Pure viral sepsis secondary to community-acquired pneumonia in adults: risk and prognostic factors. J Infect Dis. 2019 Aug 30;220(7):1166-71.Full text Abstract
37. Johansson N, Kalin M, Tiveljung-Lindell A, et al. Etiology of community-acquired pneumonia: increased microbiological yield with new diagnostic methods. Clin Infect Dis. 2010 Jan 15;50(2):202-9.Full text Abstract
38. Alcón A, Fàbregas N, Torres A. Pathophysiology of pneumonia. Clin Chest Med. 2005 Mar;26(1):39-46. Abstract
39. Rumbak MJ. The pathogenesis of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2002 Oct;23(5):427-34. Abstract
40. Dickson RP, Erb-Downward JR, Huffnagle GB. Towards an ecology of the lung: new conceptual models of pulmonary microbiology and pneumonia pathogenesis. Lancet Respir Med. 2014 Mar;2(3):238-46.Full text Abstract
41. Wu BG, Segal LN. The lung microbiome and its role in pneumonia. Clin Chest Med. 2018 Dec;39(4):677-89.Full text Abstract
42. Man WH, de Steenhuijsen Piters WA, Bogaert D. The microbiota of the respiratory tract: gatekeeper to respiratory health. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2017 May;15(5):259-70.Full text Abstract
43. Polverino E, Dambrava P, Cillóniz C, et al. Nursing home-acquired pneumonia: a 10 year single-centre experience. Thorax. 2010 Apr;65(4):354-9.Full text Abstract
44. Sund-Levander M, Ortqvist A, Grodzinsky E, et al. Morbidity, mortality and clinical presentation of nursing home-acquired pneumonia in a Swedish population. Scand J Infect Dis. 2003;35(5):306-10. Abstract
45. Metlay JP, Waterer GW, Long AC, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of adults with community-acquired pneumonia. an official clinical practice guideline of the American Thoracic Society and Infectious Diseases Society of America. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2019 Oct 1;200(7):e45-67.Full text Abstract
46. Molinos L, Clemente MG, Miranda B, et al. Community-acquired pneumonia in patients with and without chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. J Infect. 2009 Jun;58(6):417-24. Abstract
47. Kohlhammer Y, Schwartz M, Raspe H, et al. Risk factors for community acquired pneumonia (CAP): a systematic review [in German]. Dtsch Med Wochenschr. 2005 Feb 25;130(8):381-6. Abstract
48. Garcia-Vidal C, Ardanuy C, Tubau F, et al. Pneumococcal pneumonia presenting with septic shock: host- and pathogen-related factors and outcomes. Thorax. 2010 Jan;65(1):77-81. Abstract
49. Gordin FM, Roediger MP, Girard PM, et al. Pneumonia in HIV-infected persons: increased risk with cigarette smoking and treatment interruption. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2008 Sep 15;178(6):630-6. Abstract
50. Bello S, Menéndez R, Torres A, et al. Tobacco smoking increases the risk for death from pneumococcal pneumonia. Chest. 2014 Oct;146(4):1029-37. Abstract
51. Baskaran V, Murray RL, Hunter A, et al. Effect of tobacco smoking on the risk of developing community acquired pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2019 Jul 18;14(7):e0220204.Full text Abstract
52. Almirall J, Serra-Prat M, Bolíbar I, et al. Passive smoking at home is a risk factor for community-acquired pneumonia in older adults: a population-based case-control study. BMJ Open. 2014 Jun 13;4(6):e005133.Full text Abstract
53. Simou E, Britton J, Leonardi-Bee J. Alcohol and the risk of pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open. 2018 Aug 22;8(8):e022344.Full text Abstract
54. Samokhvalov AV, Irving HM, Rehm J. Alcohol consumption as a risk factor for pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Epidemiol Infect. 2010 Dec;138(12):1789-95. Abstract
55. Rodriguez F, Bolíbar I, Serra-Prat M, et al. Poor oral health as risk factor for community-acquired pneumonia. J Pulm Respir Med. 2014 Sep 26;4(5):1000203.Full text
56. Cao Y, Liu C, Lin J, et al. Oral care measures for preventing nursing home-acquired pneumonia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2022 Nov 16;11(11):CD012416.Full text Abstract
57. Abramowitz J, Thakkar P, Isa A, et al. Adverse event reporting for proton pump inhibitor therapy: an overview of systematic reviews. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2016 Oct;155(4):547-54. Abstract
58. Lambert AA, Lam JO, Paik JJ, et al. Risk of community-acquired pneumonia with outpatient proton-pump inhibitor therapy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2015 Jun 4;10(6):e0128004.Full text Abstract
59. Eom CS, Jeon CY, Lim JW, et al. Use of acid-suppressive drugs and risk of pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. CMAJ. 2011 Feb 22;183(3):310-9.Full text Abstract
60. Almirall J, Bolíbar I, Serra-Prat M, et al. New evidence of risk factors for community-acquired pneumonia: a population-based study. Eur Respir J. 2008 Jun;31(6):1274-84.Full text Abstract
61. Schnoor M, Klante T, Beckmann M, et al. Risk factors for community-acquired pneumonia in German adults: the impact of children in the household. Epidemiol Infect. 2007 Nov;135(8):1389-97.Full text Abstract
62. Teepe J, Grigoryan L, Verheij TJ. Determinants of community-acquired pneumonia in children and young adults in primary care. Eur Respir J. 2010 May;35(5):1113-7.Full text Abstract
63. Cillóniz C, García-Vidal C, Moreno A, et al. Community-acquired bacterial pneumonia in adult HIV-infected patients. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2018 Jul;16(7):579-88. Abstract
64. Barbagelata E, Cillóniz C, Dominedò C, et al. Gender differences in community-acquired pneumonia. Minerva Med. 2020 Apr;111(2):153-65. Abstract
65. Kornum JB, Thomsen RW, Riis A, et al. Diabetes, glycemic control, and risk of hospitalization with pneumonia: a population-based case-control study. Diabetes Care. 2008 Aug;31(8):1541-5.Full text Abstract
66. Yende S, van der Poll T, Lee M, et al. The influence of pre-existing diabetes mellitus on the host immune response and outcome of pneumonia: analysis of two multicentre cohort studies. Thorax. 2010 Oct;65(10):870-7.Full text Abstract
67. Kang CI, Song JH, Kim SH, et al. Risk factors and pathogenic significance of bacteremic pneumonia in adult patients with community-acquired pneumococcal pneumonia. J Infect. 2013 Jan;66(1):34-40. Abstract
68. From S, Targowski T. The risk factors of death in community-acquired pneumonia [in Polish]. Pol Merkur Lekarski. 2002 Jun;12(72):455-7. Abstract
69. Chidiac C, Che D, Pires-Cronenberger S, et al. Factors associated with hospital mortality in community-acquired legionellosis in France. Eur Respir J. 2012 Apr;39(4):963-70.Full text Abstract
70. Fernández J, Navasa M, Gómez J, et al. Bacterial infections in cirrhosis: epidemiological changes with invasive procedures and norfloxacin prophylaxis. Hepatology. 2002 Jan;35(1):140-8.Full text Abstract
71. Cillóniz C, Ewig S, Polverino E, et al. Pulmonary complications of pneumococcal community-acquired pneumonia: incidence, predictors, and outcomes. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2012 Nov;18(11):1134-42.Full text Abstract
72. Edelman EJ, Gordon KS, Crothers K, et al. Association of prescribed opioids with increased risk of community-acquired pneumonia among patients with and without HIV. JAMA Intern Med. 2019 Mar 1;179(3):297-304. Abstract
73. Liapikou A, Cilloniz C, Torres A. Drugs that increase the risk of community-acquired pneumonia: a narrative review. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2018 Oct;17(10):991-1003. Abstract
74. Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55.Full text Abstract
75. Padhani ZA, Moazzam Z, Ashraf A, et al. Vitamin C supplementation for prevention and treatment of pneumonia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021 Nov 18;(11):CD013134.Full text Abstract
76. Public Health England. Insufficient evidence for vitamin D preventing or treating ARTIs. Jul 2020 [internet publication].Full text
77. British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication].Full text
78. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia: diagnosis and management. Sep 2025 [internet publication].Full text
79. Royal College of Physicians. National early warning score (NEWS) 2: standardising the assessment of acute-illness severity in the NHS. Dec 2017 [internet publication].Full text
80. NHS England. Sepsis guidance implementation advice for adults. September 2017 [internet publication].Full text
81. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Suspected sepsis in people aged 16 or over: recognition, assessment and early management. Nov 2025 [internet publication].Full text
82. Nutbeam T, Daniels R; The UK Sepsis Trust. Clinical tools [internet publication].Full text
83. Academy of Medical Royal Colleges. Statement on the initial antimicrobial treatment of sepsis V2.0. Oct 2022 [internet publication].Full text Abstract
84. O'Driscoll BR, Howard LS, Earis J, et al. BTS guideline for oxygen use in adults in healthcare and emergency settings. Thorax. 2017 Jun;72 (suppl 1):ii1-90.Full text Abstract
85. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia in adults: diagnosis and management. July 2022 [internet publication].Full text
86. Parrott GL, Kinjo T, Fujita J. A compendium for Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Front Microbiol. 2016;7:513.Full text Abstract
87. Sharma L, Losier A, Tolbert T, et al. Atypical pneumonia: updates on Legionella, Chlamydophila, and Mycoplasma pneumonia. Clin Chest Med. 2017 Mar;38(1):45-58.Full text Abstract
88. Tasaka S. Pneumocystis pneumonia in human immunodeficiency virus-infected adults and adolescents: current concepts and future directions. Clin Med Insights Circ Respir Pulm Med. 2015;9(suppl 1):19-28.Full text Abstract
89. Durrington HJ, Summers C. Recent changes in the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults. BMJ. 2008 Jun 21;336(7658):1429-33.Full text Abstract
90. UK Health Security Agency. COVID-19: testing from 1 April 2024. Mar 2024 [internet publication].Full text
91. Hoare Z, Lim WS. Pneumonia: update on diagnosis and management. BMJ. 2006 May 6;332(7549):1077-9.Full text Abstract
92. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Suspected sepsis in people aged 16 or over: recognition, assessment and early management. Nov 2025 [internet publication].Full text
93. Inada-Kim M. Introducing the suspicion of sepsis insights dashboard. Royal College of Pathologists Bulletin. 2019 Apr;186;109.
94. Scala R, Schultz M, Bos LDJ, et al. New Surviving Sepsis Campaign guidelines: back to the art of medicine. Eur Respir J. 2018 Jul;52(1):1701818.Full text Abstract
95. Prescott HC, Antonelli M, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving sepsis campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock 2026. Crit Care Med. 2026 Apr 1;54(4):725-812.Full text Abstract
97. Welte T, Torres A, Nathwani D. Clinical and economic burden of community-acquired pneumonia among adults in Europe. Thorax. 2012 Jan;67(1):71-9. Abstract
98. Mehr DR, Zweig SC, Kruse RL, et al. Mortality from lower respiratory infection in nursing home residents: a pilot prospective community-based study. J Fam Pract. 1998 Oct;47(4):298-304. Abstract
99. Norman DC. Pneumonia in the elderly: empiric antimicrobial therapy. Geriatrics. 1991 Dec;46(12):26-32. Abstract
100. Vergis EN, Brennen C, Wagener M, et al. Pneumonia in long-term care: a prospective case-control study of risk factors and impact on survival. Arch Intern Med. 2001 Oct 22;161(19):2378-81.Full text Abstract
101. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia: diagnosis and management. Sep 2025 [internet publication].Full text
102. Kanwar M, Brar N, Khatib R, et al. Misdiagnosis of community-acquired pneumonia and inappropriate utilization of antibiotics: side effects of the 4-h antibiotic administration rule. Chest. 2007 Jun;131(6):1865-9. Abstract
103. Llamas-Álvarez AM, Tenza-Lozano EM, Latour-Pérez J. Accuracy of lung ultrasonography in the diagnosis of pneumonia in adults: systematic review and meta-analysis. Chest. 2017 Feb;151(2):374-82. Abstract
104. Orso D, Guglielmo N, Copetti R. Lung ultrasound in diagnosing pneumonia in the emergency department: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Emerg Med. 2018 Oct;25(5):312-21. Abstract
105. Gartlehner G, Wagner G, Affengruber L, et al. Point-of-care ultrasonography in patients with acute dyspnea: an evidence report for a clinical practice guideline by the American College of Physicians. Ann Intern Med. 2021 Jul;174(7):967-76.Full text Abstract
106. Ye X, Xiao H, Chen B, et al. Accuracy of lung ultrasonography versus chest radiography for the diagnosis of adult community-acquired pneumonia: review of the literature and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2015;10(6):e0130066.Full text Abstract
107. Jones BE, Ramirez JA, Oren E, et al. Diagnosis and management of community-acquired pneumonia: an official American Thoracic Society clinical practice guideline. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2026 Jan 1;212(1):24-44.Full text Abstract
108. Qaseem A, Etxeandia-Ikobaltzeta I, Mustafa RA, et al. Appropriate Use of Point-of-Care Ultrasonography in Patients With Acute Dyspnea in Emergency Department or Inpatient Settings: A Clinical Guideline From the American College of Physicians. Ann Intern Med. 2021 Jul;174(7):985-993.Full text Abstract
109. American College of Radiology. American College of Radiology (ACR) appropriateness criteria®: acute respiratory illness in immunocompetent patients. 2024 [internet publication].Full text
110. Garin N, Marti C, Scheffler M, et al. Computed tomography scan contribution to the diagnosis of community-acquired pneumonia. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2019 May;25(3):242-8.Full text Abstract
111. Müller NL, Franquet T, Lee KS. In: McAllister L, ed. Imaging of pulmonary infections. Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer/Lipponcott Williams & Wilkins; 2007.
112. Sahn SA. Diagnosis and management of parapneumonic effusions and empyema. Clin Infect Dis. 2007 Dec;45(11):1480-6.Full text Abstract
113. Konstantinides SV, Meyer G, Becattini C, et al. 2019 ESC Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of acute pulmonary embolism developed in collaboration with the European Respiratory Society (ERS): The Task Force for the diagnosis and management of acute pulmonary embolism of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Eur Respir J. 2019 Sep;54(3):1901647.Full text Abstract
114. Perrier A, Roy PM, Sanchez O, et al. Multidetector-row computed tomography in suspected pulmonary embolism. N Engl J Med. 2005 Apr 28;352(17):1760-8.Full text Abstract
115. Webb WR, Higgins CB. Thoracic imaging: pulmonary and cardiovascular radiology. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2010.
116. Fulmer JD, Snider GL. American College of Chest Physicians/National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute national conference on oxygen therapy. Heart Lung. 1984 Sep;13(5):550-62. Abstract
117. Woodhead M. New guidelines for the management of adult lower respiratory tract infections. Eur Respir J. 2011 Dec;38(6):1250-1.Full text Abstract
118. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. COVID-19 rapid guideline: managing COVID-19. May 2024 [internet publication].Full text
119. Chalmers JD, Singanayagam A, Hill AT. C-reactive protein is an independent predictor of severity in community-acquired pneumonia. Am J Med. 2008 Mar;121(3):219-25. Abstract
120. Marrie TJ, Durant H, Yates L. Community-acquired pneumonia requiring hospitalization: 5-year prospective study. Rev Infect Dis. 1989 Jul-Aug;11(4):586-99. Abstract
121. Smith MD, Derrington P, Evans R, et al. Rapid diagnosis of bacteremic pneumococcal infections in adults by using the Binax NOW Streptococcus pneumoniae urinary antigen test: a prospective, controlled clinical evaluation. J Clin Microbiol. 2003 Jul;41(7):2810-3.Full text Abstract
122. Metlay JP, Waterer GW, Long AC, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of adults with community-acquired pneumonia. An official clinical practice guideline of the American Thoracic Society and Infectious Diseases Society of America. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2019 Oct 1;200(7):e45-67.Full text Abstract
123. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Legionella (Legionnaires' disease and pontiac fever): clinical overview of Legionnaires' disease. Jun 2025 [internet publication].Full text
124. Birtles RJ, Harrison TG, Samuel D, et al. Evaluation of urinary antigen ELISA for diagnosing Legionella pneumophila serogroup 1 infection. J Clin Pathol. 1990 Aug;43(8):685-90.Full text Abstract
125. Public Health (Scotland). Guidance for the public health management of Legionnaires' disease: guidance for health protection teams (HPTs). Apr 2025 [internet publication].Full text
126. Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine; Heneghan C, Pluddemann A, Mahtani KR. Differentiating viral from bacterial pneumonia. 2020 [internet publication].Full text
127. Menéndez R, Sahuquillo-Arce JM, Reyes S, et al. Cytokine activation patterns and biomarkers are influenced by microorganisms in community-acquired pneumonia. Chest. 2012 Jun;141(6):1537-45.Full text Abstract
128. Ugajin M, Yamaki K, Hirasawa N, et al. Predictive values of semi-quantitative procalcitonin test and common biomarkers for the clinical outcomes of community-acquired pneumonia. Respir Care. 2014 Apr;59(4):564-73.Full text Abstract
129. Marrie TJ. Community-acquired pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis. 1994 Apr;18(4):501-13. Abstract
130. Stein PD, Afzal A, Henry JW, et al. Fever in acute pulmonary embolism. Chest. 2000 Jan;117(1):39-42. Abstract
131. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Legionella (legionnaires' disease and pontiac fever): clinical overview of legionnaires' disease. Jun 2025 [internet publication].Full text
132. Public Health Scotland. Guidance for the public health management of Legionnaires' disease: Guidance for health protection teams (HPTs). Apr 2025 [internet publication].Full text
133. Sadiq Z, Rana S, Mahfoud Z, et al. Systematic review and meta-analysis of chest radiograph (CXR) findings in COVID-19. Clin Imaging. 2021 Dec;80:229-38.Full text Abstract
134. Lim WS, van der Eerden MM, Laing R, et al. Defining community acquired pneumonia severity on presentation to hospital: an international derivation and validation study. Thorax. 2003 May;58(5):377-82.Full text Abstract
135. Fine MJ, Auble TE, Yealy DM, et al. A prediction rule to identify low-risk patients with community-acquired pneumonia. N Engl J Med. 1997 Jan 23;336(4):243-50.Full text Abstract
136. Royal College of Physicians. National early warning score (NEWS) 2. Dec 2017 [internet publication].Full text
137. Chu DK, Kim LH, Young PJ, et al. Mortality and morbidity in acutely ill adults treated with liberal versus conservative oxygen therapy (IOTA): a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet. 2018 Apr 28;391(10131):1693-705. Abstract
138. Levy MM, Evans LE, Rhodes A. The Surviving Sepsis Campaign bundle: 2018 update. Crit Care Med. 2018 Jun;46(6):997-1000. Abstract
139. Shah BA, Ahmed W, Dhobi GN, et al. Validity of pneumonia severity index and CURB-65 severity scoring systems in community acquired pneumonia in an Indian setting. Indian J Chest Dis Allied Sci. 2010 Jan-Mar;52(1):9-17. Abstract
140. Aujesky D, Auble TE, Yealy DM, et al. Prospective comparison of three validated prediction rules for prognosis in community-acquired pneumonia. Am J Med. 2005 Apr;118(4):384-92. Abstract
141. British Thoracic Society; Myint PK, Kamath AV, Vowler SL, et al. Severity assessment criteria recommended by the British Thoracic Society (BTS) for community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) and older patients: should SOAR (systolic blood pressure, oxygenation, age and respiratory rate) criteria be used in older people? A compilation study of two prospective cohorts. Age Ageing. 2006 May;35(3):286-91.Full text Abstract
142. Capelastegui A, España PP, Quintana JM, et al. Validation of a predictive rule for the management of community-acquired pneumonia. Eur Respir J. 2006 Jan;27(1):151-7.Full text Abstract
143. Zhang ZX, Zhang W, Liu P, et al. Prognostic value of pneumonia severity index, CURB-65, CRB-65, and procalcitonin in community-acquired pneumonia in Singapore. PoSH. 2016 Sep;25(3):139–47.Full text
144. Lim WS, Rodrigo C, Turner AM, et al. British Thoracic Society community-acquired pneumonia care bundle: results of a national implementation project. Thorax. 2016 Mar;71(3):288-90. Abstract
145. Tariq J, Banerjee R. Shorter antibiotic courses for respiratory tract infections. Lancet Infect Dis. 2025 Jan;25(1):10-11. Abstract
146. Dinh A, Ropers J, Duran C, et al. Discontinuing β-lactam treatment after 3 days for patients with community-acquired pneumonia in non-critical care wards (PTC): a double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled, non-inferiority trial. Lancet. 2021 Mar 27;397(10280):1195-1203.Full text Abstract
147. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia (community-acquired): antimicrobial prescribing. Sep 2019 [internet publication].Full text
148. Rusu A, Munteanu AC, Arbănași EM, et al. Overview of side-effects of antibacterial fluoroquinolones: new drugs versus old drugs, a step forward in the safety profile? Pharmaceutics. 2023 Mar 1;15(3):804.Full text Abstract
149. Barnett A, Beasley R, Buchan C, et al. Thoracic Society of Australia and New Zealand position statement on acute oxygen use in adults: 'Swimming between the flags'. Respirology. 2022 Apr;27(4):262-76.Full text Abstract
150. Global Initiative for Asthma. Global strategy for asthma management and prevention (2025 update). Nov 2025 [internet publication].Full text
151. Siemieniuk RAC, Chu DK, Kim LH, et al. Oxygen therapy for acutely ill medical patients: a clinical practice guideline. BMJ. 2018 Oct 24;363:k4169. Abstract
152. British Thoracic Society. BTS guideline for oxygen in healthcare and emergency settings. December 2019 update. December 2019 [internet publication].Full text
153. Voshaar T, Stais P, Köhler D, et al. Conservative management of COVID-19 associated hypoxaemia. ERJ Open Res. 2021 Jan;7(1):00026-2021.Full text Abstract
154. Barbateskovic M, Schjørring OL, Russo Krauss S, et al. Higher versus lower fraction of inspired oxygen or targets of arterial oxygenation for adults admitted to the intensive care unit. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019 Nov 27;2019(11):CD012631.Full text Abstract
155. ICU-ROX Investigators and the Australian and New Zealand Intensive Care Society Clinical Trials Group, Mackle D, Bellomo R, et al. Conservative oxygen therapy during mechanical ventilation in the ICU. N Engl J Med. 2020 Mar 12;382(11):989-98.Full text Abstract
156. Cumpstey AF, Oldman AH, Smith AF, et al. Oxygen targets in the intensive care unit during mechanical ventilation for acute respiratory distress syndrome: a rapid review. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020 Sep 1;9:CD013708.Full text Abstract
157. Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency. Fluoroquinolone antibiotics: reminder of the risk of disabling and potentially long-lasting or irreversible side effects. Aug 2023 [internet publication].Full text
158. Stern A, Skalsky K, Avni T, et al. Corticosteroids for pneumonia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017 Dec 13;(12):CD007720.Full text Abstract
159. Horita N, Otsuka T, Haranaga S, et al. Adjunctive systemic corticosteroids for hospitalized community-acquired pneumonia: systematic review and meta-analysis 2015 update. Sci Rep. 2015 Sep 16;5:14061.Full text Abstract
160. Siemieniuk RA, Meade MO, Alonso-Coello P, et al. Corticosteroid therapy for patients hospitalized with community-acquired pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. 2015 Oct 6;163(7):519-28. Abstract
161. Soumare A, Kapfer T, Botrel T, et al. Systemic corticosteroids, mortality, and infections in pneumonia and acute respiratory distress syndrome : a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. 2026 Jan;179(1):67-80. Abstract
162. Pitre T, Abdali D, Chaudhuri D, et al. Corticosteroids in community-acquired bacterial pneumonia: a systematic review, pairwise and dose-response meta-analysis. J Gen Intern Med. 2023 Aug;38(11):2593-606.Full text Abstract
163. Hydrocortisone for severe community acquired pneumonia in ICU. Drug Ther Bull. 2023 Dec 27;62(1):3. Abstract
164. Smit JM, Van Der Zee PA, Stoof SCM, et al. Predicting benefit from adjuvant therapy with corticosteroids in community-acquired pneumonia: a data-driven analysis of randomised trials. Lancet Respir Med. 2025 Mar;13(3):221-33. Abstract
165. REMAP-CAP Investigators, Angus DC. Effect of hydrocortisone on mortality in patients with severe community-acquired pneumonia : the REMAP-CAP Corticosteroid Domain Randomized Clinical Trial. Intensive Care Med. 2025 Apr;51(4):665-80.Full text Abstract
166. Capelastegui A, España PP, Bilbao A, et al. Pneumonia: criteria for patient instability on hospital discharge. Chest. 2008 Sep;134(3):595-600. Abstract
167. Niederman M. In the clinic: community-acquired pneumonia. Ann Intern Med. 2009 Oct 6;151(7):ITC42-14. Abstract
168. Grudzinska FS, Dosanjh DP, Parekh D, et al. Statin therapy in patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Clin Med (Lond). 2017 Oct;17(5):403-7.Full text Abstract
169. Wang ST, Sun XF. Role of statins in treatment and prevention of community-acquired pneumonia: a meta-analysis. Zhongguo Yi Xue Ke Xue Yuan Xue Bao. 2018 Feb 28;40(1):30-40. Abstract
170. Dillon C, Guarascio AJ, Covvey JR. Lefamulin: a promising new pleuromutilin antibiotic in the pipeline. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2019 Jan;17(1):5-15. Abstract
171. Paukner S, Gelone SP, Arends SJR, et al. Antibacterial activity of lefamulin against pathogens most commonly causing community-acquired bacterial pneumonia: SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program (2015-2016). Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2019 Apr;63(4):e02161-18.Full text Abstract
172. Veve MP, Wagner JL. Lefamulin: Review of a promising novel pleuromutilin antibiotic. Pharmacotherapy. 2018 Sep;38(9):935-46. Abstract
173. File TM, Goldberg L, Das A, et al. Efficacy and safety of intravenous-to-oral Lefamulin, a pleuromutilin antibiotic, for the treatment of community-acquired bacterial pneumonia: The phase III Lefamulin evaluation against pneumonia (LEAP 1) Trial. Clin Infect Dis. 2019 Nov 13;69(11):1856-67.Full text Abstract
174. Alexander E, Goldberg L, Das AF, et al. Oral Lefamulin vs Moxifloxacin for early clinical response among adults with community-acquired bacterial pneumonia: the LEAP 2 randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2019 Nov 5;322(17):1661-71.Full text Abstract
175. Chahine EB, Sucher AJ. Lefamulin: The first systemic pleuromutilin antibiotic. Ann Pharmacother. 2020 Dec;54(12):1203-14. Abstract
176. US Nation Library of Medicine. Study to Compare Delafloxacin to Moxifloxacin for the Treatment of Adults With Community-acquired Bacterial Pneumonia (DEFINE-CABP). Feb 2020 [internet publication].Full text
177. Stets R, Popescu M, Gonong JR, et al. Omadacycline for community-acquired bacterial pneumonia. N Engl J Med. 2019 Feb 7;380(6):517-27.Full text Abstract
178. Nicholson SC, Welte T, File TM Jr, et al. A randomised, double-blind trial comparing ceftobiprole medocaril with ceftriaxone with or without linezolid for the treatment of patients with community-acquired pneumonia requiring hospitalisation. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2012 Mar;39(3):240-6. Abstract
179. Hsu WH, Hsu CK, Lai CC. Ceftobiprole medocaril for the treatment of pneumonia. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2023 Jun;21(6):551-563.Full text Abstract
180. Chang SP, Lee HZ, Lai CC, et al. The efficacy and safety of nemonoxacin compared with levofloxacin in the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia: a systemic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Infect Drug Resist. 2019;12:433-8.Full text Abstract
181. Oldach D, Clark K, Schranz J, et al. Randomized, double-blind, multicenter phase 2 study comparing the efficacy and safety of oral solithromycin (CEM-101) to those of oral levofloxacin in the treatment of patients with community-acquired bacterial pneumonia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2013 Jun;57(6):2526-34.Full text Abstract
182. File TM Jr, Rewerska B, Vucinic-Mihailovic V, et al. SOLITAIRE-IV: a randomized, double-blind, multicenter study comparing the efficacy and safety of intravenous-to-oral solithromycin to intravenous-to-oral moxifloxacin for treatment of community-acquired bacterial pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis. 2016 Oct 15;63(8):1007-16.Full text Abstract
183. Luna HI, Pankey G. The utility of blood culture in patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Ochsner J. 2001 Apr;3(2):85-93.Full text Abstract
184. Reyes LF, Conway Morris A, Serrano-Mayorga C, et al. Community-acquired pneumonia. Lancet. 2025 Nov 15;406(10517):2371-88. Abstract
185. Torres A, Cillóniz C, Ferrer M, et al. Bacteraemia and antibiotic-resistant pathogens in community acquired pneumonia: risk and prognosis. Eur Respir J. 2015 May;45(5):1353-63. Abstract
186. Sligl WI, Marrie TJ. Severe community-acquired pneumonia. Crit Care Clin. 2013 Jul;29(3):563-601. Abstract
187. Melzer M, Welch C. 30-day mortality in UK patients with bacteraemic community-acquired pneumonia. Infection. 2013 Oct;41(5):1005-11. Abstract
188. Prina E, Ranzani OT, Torres A. Community-acquired pneumonia. Lancet. 2015 Sep 12;386(9998):1097-108.Full text Abstract
189. Carella F, Aliberti S, Stainer A, et al. Long-term outcomes in severe community-acquired pneumonia. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2024 Apr;45(2):266-73. Abstract
190. Viasus D, Del Rio-Pertuz G, Simonetti AF, et al. Biomarkers for predicting short-term mortality in community-acquired pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Infect. 2016 Mar;72(3):273-82. Abstract
191. Jiang J, Yang J, Jin Y, et al. Role of qSOFA in predicting mortality of pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Medicine (Baltimore). 2018 Oct;97(40):e12634.Full text Abstract
192. Cillóniz C, Dominedò C, Ielpo A, et al. Risk and prognostic factors in very old patients with sepsis secondary to community-acquired pneumonia. J Clin Med. 2019 Jul 2;8(7):961.Full text Abstract
193. Cilloniz C, Ferrer M, Liapikou A, et al. Acute respiratory distress syndrome in mechanically ventilated patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Eur Respir J. 2018 Mar;51(3):1702215.Full text Abstract
194. Máca J, Jor O, Holub M, et al. Past and present ARDS mortality rates: a systematic review. Respir Care. 2017 Jan;62(1):113-22. Abstract
195. Corrales-Medina VF, Musher DM, Wells GA, et al. Cardiac complications in patients with community-acquired pneumonia: incidence, timing, risk factors, and association with short-term mortality. Circulation. 2012 Feb 14;125(6):773-81.Full text Abstract
196. Corrales-Medina VF, Suh KN, Rose G, et al. Cardiac complications in patients with community-acquired pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. PLoS Med. 2011 Jun;8(6):e1001048.Full text Abstract
197. Brown AO, Mann B, Gao G, et al. Streptococcus pneumoniae translocates into the myocardium and forms unique microlesions that disrupt cardiac function. PLoS Pathog. 2014 Sep;10(9):e1004383.Full text Abstract
198. Light RW, Girard WM, Jenkinson SG, et al. Parapneumonic effusions. Am J Med. 1980 Oct;69(4):507-12. Abstract
199. Taryle DA, Potts DE, Sahn SA. The incidence and clinical correlates of parapneumonic effusions in pneumococcal pneumonia. Chest. 1978 Aug;74(2):170-3. Abstract
200. Menéndez R, Torres A, Zalacaín R, et al. Risk factors of treatment failure in community acquired pneumonia: implications for disease outcome. Thorax. 2004 Nov;59(11):960-5.Full text Abstract
201. Tsai YF, Ku YH. Necrotizing pneumonia: a rare complication of pneumonia requiring special consideration. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2012 May;18(3):246-52. Abstract
202. Ross I, Bick S, Ayieko P, et al. Effectiveness of handwashing with soap for preventing acute respiratory infections in low-income and middle-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet. 2023 May 20;401(10389):1681-90.Full text Abstract
Comorbidities Manager reference articles
203. Royal College of Physicians. National early warning score (NEWS2). Standardising the assessment of acute-illness severity in the NHS. December 2017 [internet publication]Full text
204. Global Initiative for Asthma. Global strategy for asthma management and prevention. 2025 [internet publication]Full text
205. British Thoracic Society; Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network. British guideline on the management of asthma: a national clinical guideline. Nov 2024 [internet publication]Full text
206. O'Driscoll BR, Howard LS, Earis J, et al. BTS guideline for oxygen use in adults in healthcare and emergency settings. Thorax. 2017 Jun;72(suppl 1):ii1-90Full text Abstract
207. Chu DK, Kim LH, Young PJ, et al. Mortality and morbidity in acutely ill adults treated with liberal versus conservative oxygen therapy (IOTA): systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet. 2018 Apr 26;391(10131):1693-705 Abstract
208. Siemieniuk RAC, Chu DK, Kim LH, et al. Oxygen therapy for acutely ill medical patients: a clinical practice guideline. BMJ. 2018 Oct 24;363:k4169. Abstract
209. NHS England. Toolkit for general practice in supporting older people living with frailty. March 2017 [internet publication]Full text
210. British Geriatrics Society (BGS), Getting It Right First Time (GIRFT). Six steps to better care for older people in acute hospitals. Jul 2023 [internet publication].Full text
211. Falk Erhag H, Guðnadóttir G, Alfredsson J, et al. The association between the clinical frailty scale and adverse health outcomes in older adults in acute clinical settings: a systematic review of the literature. Clin Interv Aging. 2023 Feb;18:249-61.Full text Abstract
212. Quinn TJ, Mooijaart SP, Gallacher K, et al. Acute care assessment of older adults living with frailty. BMJ. 2019 Jan 31;364:l13 Abstract
213. Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) CKD Work Group. KDIGO 2024 clinical practice guideline for the evaluation and management of chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int. 2024 Apr;105(4s):S117-S314.Full text Abstract
214. Fritz Z, Slowther AM, Perkins GD. Resuscitation policy should focus on the patient, not the decision. BMJ. 2017 Feb 28;356:j813Full text Abstract
215. British Medical Association, the Resuscitation Council (UK) and the Royal College of Nursing. Decisions relating to cardiopulmonary resuscitation. 2016 [internet publication].Full text
216. The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Decision making and mental capacity. October 2018 [internet publication]Full text
217. Office of the Public Guardian. Mental Capacity Act: making decisions. Jun 2023 [internet publication]Full text
218. Social Care Institute for Excellence. Independent mental capacity advocate (IMCA). January 2010 [internet publication]Full text
219. Royal College of Emergency Medicine. The Mental Capacity Act in emergency medicine practice. Feb 2017 [internet publication].Full text
220. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Intravenous fluid therapy in adults in hospital. Clinical guideline CG174. May 2017 [internet publication]Full text
221. Law JP, Pickup L, Townend JN, et al. Anticoagulant strategies for the patient with chronic kidney disease. Clin Med (Lond). 2020 Mar;20(2):151-5Full text Abstract
222. Verbrugge FH, Grieten L, Mullens W. Management of the cardiorenal syndrome in decompensated heart failure. Cardiorenal Med. 2014 Dec;4(3-4):176-88Full text Abstract
223. Ezekowitz JA, O'Meara E, McDonald MA, et al. 2017 Comprehensive update of the Canadian Cardiovascular Society Guidelines for the management of heart failure. Can J Cardiol. 2017 Nov;33(11):1342-433.Full text Abstract
224. Burgos J, Luján M, Larrosa MN, et al. Risk factors for respiratory failure in pneumococcal pneumonia: the importance of pneumococcal serotypes. Eur Respir J. 2014 Feb;43(2):545-53.Full text Abstract
225. Blonde L, Umpierrez GE, Reddy SS, et al. American Association of Clinical Endocrinology clinical practice guideline: developing a diabetes mellitus comprehensive care plan-2022 update. Endocr Pract. 2022 Oct;28(10):923-1049.Full text Abstract
226. Su G, Iwagami M, Qin X, et al. Kidney disease and mortality in patients with respiratory tract infections: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Kidney J. 2021 Feb;14(2):602-11.Full text Abstract
227. Yu Y, Liu W, Jiang HL, et al. Pneumonia is associated with increased mortality in hospitalized COPD patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Respiration. 2021;100(1):64-76. Abstract
228. Fang YY, Ni JC, Wang Y, et al. Risk factors for hospital readmissions in pneumonia patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. World J Clin Cases. 2022 Apr 26;10(12):3787-800.Full text Abstract
229. Manabe T, Fujikura Y, Mizukami K, et al. Pneumonia-associated death in patients with dementia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2019;14(3):e0213825.Full text Abstract
230. Rao A, Suliman A, Vuik S, et al. Outcomes of dementia: systematic review and meta-analysis of hospital administrative database studies. Arch Gerontol Geriatr. 2016 Sep-Oct;66:198-204. Abstract
231. Foley NC, Affoo RH, Martin RE. A systematic review and meta-analysis examining pneumonia-associated mortality in dementia. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2015;39(1-2):52-67.Full text Abstract
232. Kundi H, Wadhera RK, Strom JB, et al. Association of frailty with 30-Day outcomes for acute myocardial infarction, heart failure, and pneumonia among elderly adults. JAMA Cardiol. 2019 Nov 1;4(11):1084-91.Full text Abstract
233. Fine MJ, Auble TE, Yealy DM, et al. A prediction rule to identify low-risk patients with community-acquired pneumonia. N Engl J Med. 1997 Jan 23;336(4):243-50.Full text Abstract
234. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Tobacco: preventing uptake, promoting quitting and treating dependence. Feb 2025 [internet publication].Full text
235. Agrawal S, Evison M, Ananth S, et al. Medical management of inpatients with tobacco dependency. Thorax. 2024 Mar 26;79(suppl 1):3-11.Full text Abstract
236. Theodoulou A, Chepkin SC, Ye W, et al. Different doses, durations and modes of delivery of nicotine replacement therapy for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2023 Jun 19;6(6):CD013308Full text Abstract
237. Rigotti NA, Kruse GR, Livingstone-Banks J, et al. Treatment of tobacco smoking: a review. JAMA. 2022 Feb 8;327(6):566-77.Full text Abstract
238. Lindson N, Theodoulou A, Ordóñez-Mena JM, et al. Pharmacological and electronic cigarette interventions for smoking cessation in adults: component network meta-analyses. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2023 Sep 12;9(9):CD015226.Full text Abstract
239. Thomas KH, Dalili MN, López-López JA, et al. Comparative clinical effectiveness and safety of tobacco cessation pharmacotherapies and electronic cigarettes: a systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Addiction. 2022 Apr;117(4):861-76Full text Abstract
240. Freeman R, Wieling W, Axelrod FB, et al. Consensus statement on the definition of orthostatic hypotension, neurally mediated syncope and the postural tachycardia syndrome. Clin Auton Res. 2011 Apr;21(2):69-72 Abstract
241. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Hypertension in adults. Nov 2023 [internet publication].Full text
242. Griffin M, Rao VS, Ivey-Miranda J, et al. Empagliflozin in heart failure: diuretic and cardiorenal effects. Circulation. 2020 Sep 15;142(11):1028-39.Full text Abstract
243. Joint British Diabetes Societies for Inpatient Care. Diabetes at the front door: a guideline for dealing with glucose related emergencies at the time of acute hospital admission from the Joint British Diabetes Society (JBDS) for Inpatient Care Group. May 2023 [internet publication].Full text
244. Umpierrez GE, Davis GM, ElSayed NA, et al. Hyperglycaemic crises in adults with diabetes: a consensus report. Diabetologia. 2024 Aug;67(8):1455-79.Full text Abstract
245. Chowdhury TA, Cheston H, Claydon A. Managing adults with diabetes in hospital during an acute illness. BMJ. 2017 Jun 22;357:j2551 Abstract
246. Joint British Diabetes Societies for Inpatient Care. Self-management of diabetes in hospital. Feb 2023 [internet publication].Full text
247. Joint British Diabetes Societies for Inpatient Care; Diabetes Technology Network. Using technology to support diabetes care in hospital. Mar 2024 [internet publication].Full text
248. Joint British Diabetes Societies for Inpatient Care. Glycaemic management during enteral feeding for people with diabetes in hospital. Apr 2024 [internet publication].Full text
249. Joint British Diabetes Societies for Inpatient Care. The use of variable rate intravenous insulin infusion (VRIII) in medical inpatients. Oct 2014 [internet publication].Full text
250. Joint British Diabetes Societies for Inpatient Care. A good inpatient diabetes service. Jul 2019 [internet publication].Full text
251. Centre for Perioperative Care. Guideline for perioperative care for people with diabetes mellitus undergoing elective and emergency surgery. Oct 2023 [internet publication].Full text
252. Pasquel FJ, Lansang MC, Dhatariya K, et al. Management of diabetes and hyperglycaemia in the hospital. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2021 Mar;9(3):174-88Full text Abstract
253. Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency. SGLT2 inhibitors: monitor ketones in blood during treatment interruption for surgical procedures or acute serious medical illness. March 2020 [internet publication]Full text
254. Peters AL, Buschur EO, Buse JB, et al. Euglycemic diabetic ketoacidosis: a potential complication of treatment with sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibition. Diabetes Care. 2015 Jun 15;38(9):1687-93 Abstract
255. Umapathysivam MM, Gunton J, Stranks SN, et al. Euglycemic ketoacidosis in two patients without diabetes after introduction of sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitor for heart failure with reduced ejection fraction. Diabetes Care. 2024 Jan 1;47(1):140-3.Full text Abstract
256. Joint British Diabetes Societies for Inpatient Care. Management of hyperglycaemia and steroid (glucocorticosteroid) therapy. Jan 2023 [internet publication].Full text
257. Taylor DM, Barnes TRE, Young AH. The Maudsley prescribing guidelines in psychiatry. 15th ed. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell; 2025
258. Judd LL, Schettler PJ, Brown ES, et al. Adverse consequences of glucocorticoid medication: psychological, cognitive, and behavioral effects. Am J Psychiatry. 2014 Oct;171(10):1045-51Full text Abstract
259. Kenna HA, Poon AW, de los Angeles CP, et al. Psychiatric complications of treatment with corticosteroids: review with case report. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2011 Oct;65(6):549-60Full text Abstract
260. Fardet L, Nazareth I, Whitaker HJ, et al. Severe neuropsychiatric outcomes following discontinuation of long-term glucocorticoid therapy: a cohort study. J Clin Psychiatry. 2013 Apr;74(4):e281-6 Abstract
261. Warrington TP, Bostwick JM. Psychiatric adverse effects of corticosteroids. Mayo Clin Proc. 2006 Oct;81(10):1361-7Full text Abstract
262. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Acute kidney injury: prevention, detection and management. Oct 2024 [internet publication].Full text
263. Grau AJ, Urbanek C, Palm F. Common infections and the risk of stroke. Nat Rev Neurol. 2010 Nov 9;6(12):681-94 Abstract
264. Elkind MSV, Boehme AK, Smith CJ, et al. Infection as a stroke risk factor and determinant of outcome after stroke. Stroke. 2020 Oct;51(10):3156-68.Full text Abstract
265. Eigenbrodt ML, Rose KM, Couper DJ, et al. Orthostatic hypotension as a risk factor for stroke: the atherosclerosis risk in communities (ARIC) study, 1987-1996. Stroke. 2000 Oct;31(10):2307-13 Abstract
266. Winstein CJ, Stein J, Arena R, et al. Guidelines for adult stroke rehabilitation and recovery: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2016 May 4;47(6):e98-e169Full text Abstract
267. Pendlebury ST, Klaus SP, Mather M, et al. Routine cognitive screening in older patients admitted to acute medicine: abbreviated mental test score (AMTS) and subjective memory complaint versus Montreal Cognitive Assessment and IQCODE. Age Ageing. 2015 Oct 13;44(6):1000-5Full text Abstract
268. Hodkinson HM. Evaluation of a mental test score for assessment of mental impairment in the elderly. Age Ageing. 1972 Nov;1(4):233-8 Abstract
269. Emery A, Wells J, Klaus SP, et al. Underestimation of cognitive impairment in older inpatients by the Abbreviated Mental Test Score versus the Montreal Cognitive Assessment: cross-sectional observational study. Dement Geriatr Cogn Dis Extra. 2020 Sep-Dec;10(3):205-15.Full text Abstract
270. Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network. Risk reduction and management of delirium. Mar 2019 [internet publication].Full text
271. Bellelli G, Morandi A, Davis DH, et al. Validation of the 4AT, a new instrument for rapid delirium screening: a study in 234 hospitalised older people. Age Ageing. 2014 Mar 2;43(4):496-502.Full text Abstract
272. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Delirium: prevention, diagnosis and management in hospital and long-term care. Jan 2023 [internet publication].Full text
273. Tieges Z, Maclullich AMJ, Anand A, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of the 4AT for delirium detection in older adults: systematic review and meta-analysis. Age Ageing. 2021 May 5;50(3):733-43.Full text Abstract
274. Zhang XM, Jiao J, Xie XH, et al. The association between frailty and delirium among hospitalized patients: an updated meta-analysis. J Am Med Dir Assoc. 2021 Mar;22(3):527-34. Abstract
275. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Dementia: assessment, management and support for people living with dementia and their carers. Jun 2018 [internet publication].Full text
276. Bishara D. Managing drugs with anticholinergic activity. Drug Ther Bull. 2023 Sep;61(9):135-9.Full text Abstract
277. Lisibach A, Gallucci G, Benelli V, et al. Evaluation of the association of anticholinergic burden and delirium in older hospitalised patients: a cohort study comparing 19 anticholinergic burden scales. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2022 Nov;88(11):4915-27.Full text Abstract
278. Smith H, Fligelstone H. Reducing patient and planetary harms from high anticholinergic burden medication. BMJ. 2024 Jan 15;384:e075708.Full text Abstract
279. Gracie TJ, Caufield-Noll C, Wang NY, et al. The association of preoperative frailty and postoperative delirium: a meta-analysis. Anesth Analg. 2021 Aug 1;133(2):314-23.Full text Abstract
280. Liu CY, Gong N, Liu W. The association between preoperative frailty and postoperative delirium: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Perianesth Nurs. 2022 Feb;37(1):53-62.e1. Abstract
281. White S, Griffiths R, Baxter M, et al. Guidelines for the peri-operative care of people with dementia: guidelines from the Association of Anaesthetists. Anaesthesia. 2019 Jan 11;74(3):357-72Full text Abstract
282. Burton JK, Craig L, Yong SQ, et al. Non-pharmacological interventions for preventing delirium in hospitalised non-ICU patients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021 Nov 26;(11):CD013307.Full text Abstract
283. UK Health Security Agency. Urinary tract infection: diagnostic tools for primary care. Jul 2025 [internet publication]Full text
284. Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency. Haloperidol (haldol): reminder of risks when used in elderly patients for the acute treatment of delirium. Dec 2021 [internet publication]Full text
285. Mühlbauer V, Möhler R, Dichter MN, et al. Antipsychotics for agitation and psychosis in people with Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021 Dec 17;12(12):CD013304.Full text Abstract
286. Yunusa I, Alsumali A, Garba AE, et al. Assessment of reported comparative effectiveness and safety of atypical antipsychotics in the treatment of behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia: a network meta-analysis. JAMA Netw Open. 2019 Mar 1;2(3):e190828.Full text Abstract
287. Van Leeuwen E, Petrovic M, van Driel ML, et al. Withdrawal versus continuation of long-term antipsychotic drug use for behavioural and psychological symptoms in older people with dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018 Mar 30;3:CD007726.Full text Abstract
288. Kroenke K, Spitzer RL, Williams JB. The PHQ-9: validity of a brief depression severity measure. J Gen Intern Med. 2001 Sep;16(9):606-13 Abstract
289. Boden JM, Fergusson DM. Alcohol and depression. Addiction. 2011 May;106(5):906-14. Abstract
290. American Diabetes Association Professional Practice Committee. 16. Diabetes care in the hospital: standards of care in diabetes - 2025. Diabetes Care. 2025 Jan 1;48(1 suppl 1):S321-34.Full text Abstract
291. Joint British Diabetes Societies for Inpatient Care. A good inpatient diabetes service. Jul 2019 [internet publication].Full text
292. Joint British Diabetes Societies for Inpatient Care. Inpatient care of the frail older adult with diabetes. Feb 2023 [internet publication].Full text
293. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. Aug 2022 [internet publication].Full text
294. van den Berghe G, Wouters P, Weekers F, et al. Intensive insulin therapy in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med. 2001 Nov 8;345(19):1359-67Full text Abstract
295. NICE-SUGAR Study Investigators, Finfer S, Chittock DR, et al. Intensive versus conventional glucose control in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med. 2009 Mar 26;360(13):1283-97.Full text Abstract
296. Yamada T, Shojima N, Noma H, et al. Glycemic control, mortality, and hypoglycemia in critically ill patients: a systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Intensive Care Med. 2017 Jan;43(1):1-15. Abstract
297. Yatabe T, Inoue S, Sakaguchi M, et al. The optimal target for acute glycemic control in critically ill patients: a network meta-analysis. Intensive Care Med. 2017 Jan;43(1):16-28. Abstract
298. Joint British Diabetes Societies for Inpatient Care. The management of diabetic ketoacidosis in adults. Mar 2023 [internet publication].Full text
299. Joint British Diabetes Societies for Inpatient Care. The management of the hyperosmolar hyperglycaemic state (HHS) in adults. Feb 2022 [internet publication].Full text
300. Rehman A, Setter SM, Vue MH. Drug-induced glucose alterations part 2: drug-Induced hyperglycemia. Diabetes Spect. 2011 Nov;24(4):234-8Full text
301. Joint British Diabetes Societies for Inpatient Care. The hospital management of hypoglycaemia in adults with diabetes mellitus. Jan 2023 [internet publication].Full text
302. TREND™ Diabetes. End of life guidance for diabetes care. Jun 2024 [internet publication]Full text
303. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetic foot problems: prevention and management. October 2019 [internet publication]Full text
304. Senneville É, Albalawi Z, van Asten SA, et al. IWGDF/IDSA guidelines on the diagnosis and treatment of diabetes-related foot infections (IWGDF/IDSA 2023). Diabetes Metab Res Rev. 2024 Mar;40(3):e3687.Full text Abstract
305. Rayman G, Vas PR, Baker N, et al. The Ipswich Touch Test: a simple and novel method to identify inpatients with diabetes at risk of foot ulceration. Diabetes Care. 2011 May 18;34(7):1517-8Full text Abstract
306. Salpeter SR, Ormiston TM, Salpeter EE. Cardiovascular effects of beta-agonists in patients with asthma and COPD: a meta-analysis. Chest. 2004 Jun;125(6):2309-21Full text Abstract
307. Au DH, Curtis JR, Every NR, et al. Association between inhaled beta-agonists and the risk of unstable angina and myocardial infarction. Chest. 2002 Mar;121(3):846-51Full text Abstract
308. Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease. Global strategy for the diagnosis, management and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. 2026 [internet publication].Full text
309. Walters JA, Tan DJ, White CJ, et al. Different durations of corticosteroid therapy for exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018 Mar 19;3:CD006897Full text Abstract
310. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in over 16s: diagnosis and management. July 2019 [internet publication]Full text
311. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Depression in adults: treatment and management. Jun 2022 [internet publication]Full text
312. Horowitz M, Taylor DM. The Maudsley deprescribing guidelines: antidepressants, benzodiazepines, gabapentinoids and Z-drugs. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell; 2024.
313. Cleare A, Pariante CM, Young AH, et al. Evidence-based guidelines for treating depressive disorders with antidepressants: a revision of the 2008 British Association for Psychopharmacology guidelines. J Psychopharmacol. 2015 May 12;29(5):459-525Full text Abstract
314. Boyer EW, Shannon M. The serotonin syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2005 Mar 17;352(11):1112-20. Abstract
315. Buckley NA, Dawson AH, Isbister GK. Serotonin syndrome. BMJ. 2014 Feb 19;348:g1626 Abstract
316. Volpi-Abadie J, Kaye AM, Kaye AD. Serotonin syndrome. Ochsner J. 2013 Winter;13(4):533-40.Full text Abstract
317. Nochaiwong S, Ruengorn C, Awiphan R, et al. Use of serotonin reuptake inhibitor antidepressants and the risk of bleeding complications in patients on anticoagulant or antiplatelet agents: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Med. 2022 Dec;54(1):80-97Full text Abstract
318. Haghbin H, Zakirkhodjaev N, Husain FF, et al. Risk of gastrointestinal bleeding with concurrent use of NSAID and SSRI: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Dig Dis Sci. 2023 May;68(5):1975-82. Abstract
319. Flowers L. Nicotine replacement therapy. Am J Psychiatry Resid. 2016 Jun;11(6)4-7Full text
320. Oliveira P, Ribeiro J, Donato H, Madeira N. Smoking and antidepressants pharmacokinetics: a systematic review. Ann Gen Psychiatry. 2017;16:17Full text Abstract
321. Harbell MW, Dumitrascu C, Bettini L, et al. Anesthetic considerations for patients on psychotropic drug therapies. Neurol Int. 2021 Nov 29;13(4):640-58.Full text Abstract
322. Saraghi M, Golden L, Hersh EV. Anesthetic considerations for patients on antidepressant therapy - part II. Anesth Prog. 2018 Spring;65(1):60-5.Full text Abstract
323. Roose SP, Rutherford BR. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and operative bleeding risk: a review of the literature. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2016 Dec;36(6):704-9 Abstract
324. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Liaison psychiatry. In: Emergency acute medical care in over 16s: service delivery and organisation. March 2018 [internet publication]Full text
325. National Confidential Enquiry into Patient Outcome and Death (NCEPOD). Treat as one. Bridging the gap between mental and physical healthcare in general hospitals. 2017 [internet publication]Full text
326. DiMatteo MR, Lepper HS, Croghan TW. Depression is a risk factor for noncompliance with medical treatment: meta-analysis of the effects of anxiety and depression on patient adherence. Arch Intern Med. 2000 Jul 24;160(14):2101-7 Abstract
327. Clarke DM, Currie KC. Depression, anxiety and their relationship with chronic diseases: a review of the epidemiology, risk and treatment evidence. Med J Aust. 2009 Apr 6;190(S7):S54-60 Abstract
328. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Depression in adults with a chronic physical health problem: recognition and management. October 2009 [internet publication]Full text
329. Prina AM, Cosco TD, Dening T, et al. The association between depressive symptoms in the community, non-psychiatric hospital admission and hospital outcomes: a systematic review. J Psychosom Res. 2015 Jan;78(1):25-33Full text Abstract
330. Archer G, Kuh D, Hotopf M, et al. Association between lifetime affective symptoms and premature mortality. JAMA Psychiatry. 2020 Aug 1;77(8):806-13Full text Abstract
331. Machado MO, Veronese N, Sanches M, et al. The association of depression and all-cause and cause-specific mortality: an umbrella review of systematic reviews and meta-analyses. BMC Med. 2018 Jul 20;16(1):112Full text Abstract
332. Thomas KH, Dalili MN, López-López JA, et al. Comparative clinical effectiveness and safety of tobacco cessation pharmacotherapies and electronic cigarettes: a systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Addiction. 2022 Apr;117(4):861-76.Full text Abstract
333. Streck JM, Rigotti NA, Livingstone-Banks J, et al. Interventions for smoking cessation in hospitalised patients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2024 May 21;5(5):CD001837.Full text Abstract
334. Livingstone-Banks J, Vidyasagaran AL, Croucher R, et al. Interventions for smokeless tobacco use cessation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2025 Apr 15;4(4):CD015314.Full text Abstract
335. Dalhousie University. Using the Clinical Frailty Scale to rapidly assay grades of fitness and frailty. April 2020 [internet publication].Full text
336. Hogervorst VM, Buurman BM, De Jonghe A, et al. Emergency department management of older people living with frailty: a guide for emergency practitioners. Emerg Med J. 2021 Sep;38(9):724-9 Abstract
337. British Geriatric Society, Centre for Perioperative Care. Guideline for the care of people living with frailty undergoing elective and emergency surgery that encompasses the whole perioperative pathway. Sep 2021 [internet publication].Full text
338. Rockwood K; British Geriatrics Society. Silver book II: frailty. February 2021 [internet publication]Full text
339. Conroy SP, Bardsley M, Smith P, et al. Comprehensive geriatric assessment for frail older people in acute hospitals: the HoW-CGA mixed-methods study. Health Services and Delivery Research. 2019 April:7(15)Full text
340. TREND™Diabetes. Type 1 diabetes: What to do when you are ill. Dec 2022 [internet publication].Full text
341. TREND™Diabetes. Type 2 diabetes: What to do when you are ill. Dec 2022 [internet publication].Full text
342. Watson KE, Dhaliwal K, Robertshaw S, et al. Consensus recommendations for sick day medication guidance for people with diabetes, kidney, or cardiovascular disease: a modified delphi process. Am J Kidney Dis. 2023 May;81(5):564-74.Full text Abstract
343. Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency. SGLT2 inhibitors: monitor ketones in blood during treatment interruption for surgical procedures or acute serious medical illness. Mar 2020 [internet publication].Full text
Use of this content is subject to our disclaimer