建议
紧急处理
如果患者出现急性下呼吸道感染的症状和征象,应怀疑 CAP。在医院环境中,如果发现胸片上出现新的阴影(实变),且无其他可导致实变的原因,也应怀疑 CAP。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [63]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia in adults: diagnosis and management. July 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg191 [64]Hoare Z, Lim WS. Pneumonia: update on diagnosis and management. BMJ. 2006 May 6;332(7549):1077-9. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1458569 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16675815?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
在 COVID-19 大流行期间,所有出现咳嗽、发热或其他相关提示性症状的患者,未证实为其他疾病前,均应考虑为 COVID-19。对于疑似或确诊 COVID-19 肺炎的患者,请参阅专题 Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) Opens in new window。
本专题并未探讨 COVID-19 引起的肺炎。
当有感染临床证据或强烈怀疑感染的成年患者出现急性恶化时,需考虑“这是否可能为脓毒症?”。[66]Royal College of Physicians. National early warning score (NEWS) 2: standardising the assessment of acute-illness severity in the NHS. Dec 2017 [internet publication]. https://www.rcplondon.ac.uk/projects/outputs/national-early-warning-score-news-2 [67]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Sepsis: recognition, diagnosis and early management. September 2017 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng51
使用系统方法,结合临床判断进行评估;如果怀疑脓毒症,应立即咨询高年资临床决策者(例如,英国 ST4 级别医生)。[67]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Sepsis: recognition, diagnosis and early management. September 2017 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng51 [68]NHS England. Sepsis guidance implementation advice for adults. September 2017 [internet publication]. https://www.england.nhs.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/sepsis-guidance-implementation-advice-for-adults.pdf [69]Nutbeam T, Daniels R; The UK Sepsis Trust. Clinical tools [internet publication]. https://sepsistrust.org/professional-resources/clinical-tools [70]Academy of Medical Royal Colleges. Statement on the initial antimicrobial treatment of sepsis V2.0. Oct 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.aomrc.org.uk/reports-guidance/statement-on-the-initial-antimicrobial-treatment-of-sepsis-v2-0
参阅当地指南,了解您所在机构对疑似脓毒症患者评估和管理的建议方法。请参阅 “成人脓毒症”。
紧急:在医院内
对于所有疑似 CAP 的患者,应在医院就诊后 4 小时内优先进行胸部 X 线摄影。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [63]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia in adults: diagnosis and management. July 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg191 [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
申请血液检验,包括:[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
血氧饱和度,用于指导支持性治疗
对以下患者检测动脉血气:SpO2 <94% 的患者、存在高碳酸血症性呼吸衰竭(CO2 潴留)风险的患者以及所有重度 CAP 患者(有关评估严重程度的更多详细信息,参阅管理 - 建议章节)
尿素和电解质,以获悉疾病严重程度
全血细胞计数、肝功能检查以及 C 反应蛋白,以辅助诊断并获取基线数据。
评估氧气需求。如果血氧饱和度 <94%,予以氧疗并将血氧饱和度维持在目标范围内。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults 对于存在 CO2 潴留风险的患者,如果血氧饱和度 <88%,予以氧疗。[71]O'Driscoll BR, Howard LS, Earis J, et al. BTS guideline for oxygen use in adults in healthcare and emergency settings. Thorax. 2017 Jun;72 (Suppl 1):ii1-90. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/document-library/guidelines/emergency-oxygen/bts-guideline-for-oxygen-use-in-adults-in-healthcare-and-emergency-settings http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28507176?tool=bestpractice.com
监测控制性氧疗。对大多数无高碳酸血症风险的急症患者给予辅助氧疗时,可将 SpO2 上限设为 96% 。
证据表明,在急性患病成人中,与更为保守的氧疗相比,自由氧疗(目标 SpO2 >96%)与更高的死亡率相关。[72]Chu DK, Kim LH, Young PJ, et al. Mortality and morbidity in acutely ill adults treated with liberal versus conservative oxygen therapy (IOTA): a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet. 2018 Apr 28;391(10131):1693-705. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29726345?tool=bestpractice.com
如果患者有发生高碳酸血症型呼吸衰竭的风险,则适合采取较低的目标 SpO2 为 88%-92%。[71]O'Driscoll BR, Howard LS, Earis J, et al. BTS guideline for oxygen use in adults in healthcare and emergency settings. Thorax. 2017 Jun;72 (Suppl 1):ii1-90. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/document-library/guidelines/emergency-oxygen/bts-guideline-for-oxygen-use-in-adults-in-healthcare-and-emergency-settings http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28507176?tool=bestpractice.com
对于所有经胸部 X 线摄影确诊肺炎的患者,使用CURB-65 评分以及您的临床判断 评估死亡风险(请参阅管理 - 完整建议章节,了解更多信息)。 [ CURB-65 肺炎严重程度评分 Opens in new window ] [1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [63]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia in adults: diagnosis and management. July 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg191 [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
3-5 分:重度。
3 分或更高分:尽早与上级医师讨论并作为重度肺炎进行管理。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [63]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia in adults: diagnosis and management. July 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg191 [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
4 或 5 分:请危重症诊疗专科医生进行紧急评估。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com
2 分:按照中度肺炎进行病情管理。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [63]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia in adults: diagnosis and management. July 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg191 [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
0 或 1 分:作为轻度肺炎进行管理。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [63]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia in adults: diagnosis and management. July 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg191 [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
对于中度或重度 CAP 患者,应将痰或血液样本送检培养,最好在抗生素治疗开始前进行。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults 考虑军团菌和肺炎链球菌尿抗原检测。[63]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia in adults: diagnosis and management. July 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg191
观测各项指标,最初至少每日两次,对于危重症诊疗病房(高依赖病房 [high-dependency unit] 或重症监护病房)的患者,应增加频率(例如每小时一次)。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
紧急:在社区中
仅在诊断不确定且 X 线摄影将有助于急性疾病的管理时才进行胸部 X 线检查。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [63]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia in adults: diagnosis and management. July 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg191 [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
对于大部分患者,应作出临床诊断。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [63]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia in adults: diagnosis and management. July 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg191 [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
使用脉搏血氧测定作为疾病严重程度评估的一部分并确定给氧需求。[71]O'Driscoll BR, Howard LS, Earis J, et al. BTS guideline for oxygen use in adults in healthcare and emergency settings. Thorax. 2017 Jun;72 (Suppl 1):ii1-90. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/document-library/guidelines/emergency-oxygen/bts-guideline-for-oxygen-use-in-adults-in-healthcare-and-emergency-settings http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28507176?tool=bestpractice.com
使用CRB-65 评分 评估死亡风险(请参阅 管理 - 完整建议),并根据您的临床判断评估疾病严重程度。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [63]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia in adults: diagnosis and management. July 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg191 [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
≥3 分(重度):立即将患者收住院。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [63]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia in adults: diagnosis and management. July 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg191 [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
1 分或 2 分(中度):考虑转诊至医院。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com
0 分(轻度):让大部分患者在家接受治疗。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [63]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia in adults: diagnosis and management. July 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg191 [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
关键建议
临床表现
CAP 患者通常表现出下呼吸道感染的症状和征象(即咳嗽、呼吸困难、胸膜炎性胸痛、黏液脓性痰、肌痛、发热)且无其他导致这些症状的原因(例如鼻窦炎或哮喘)。[63]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia in adults: diagnosis and management. July 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg191
切记要考虑非典型表现(无明显胸部体征)。例如:
支原体肺炎年轻成人患者可表现为咽痛、头痛、恶心、腹痛和腹泻[73]Stein PD, Afzal A, Henry JW, et al. Fever in acute pulmonary embolism. Chest. 2000 Jan;117(1):39-42. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10631196?tool=bestpractice.com
军团菌肺炎患者可表现为全身不适、腹泻和意识模糊[73]Stein PD, Afzal A, Henry JW, et al. Fever in acute pulmonary embolism. Chest. 2000 Jan;117(1):39-42. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10631196?tool=bestpractice.com
免疫抑制人群罹患肺孢子菌肺炎时可能只会出现咳嗽、呼吸困难和显著缺氧[73]Stein PD, Afzal A, Henry JW, et al. Fever in acute pulmonary embolism. Chest. 2000 Jan;117(1):39-42. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10631196?tool=bestpractice.com
老年人多表现为非特异性症状(尤其是意识模糊)以及已有疾病恶化,通常无胸部体征或发热。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
有些人会出现急性意识模糊状态。[73]Stein PD, Afzal A, Henry JW, et al. Fever in acute pulmonary embolism. Chest. 2000 Jan;117(1):39-42. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10631196?tool=bestpractice.com
不要仅使用临床特征预测致病病原体或指导抗生素的初始选择。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults [74]Woodhead M, Blasi F, Ewig S, et al. Guidelines for the management of adult lower respiratory tract infections: full version. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2011 Nov;17 Suppl 6:E1-59. https://www.clinicalmicrobiologyandinfection.com/article/S1198-743X(14)61404-X/fulltext http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21951385?tool=bestpractice.com
风险分层
使用 CURB-65 死亡风险评分(医院环境)或 CRB-65 评分(社区环境)来确定患者应该在医院还是在家接受治疗(有关风险分层的更多细节,请参见管理 - 建议章节)。 [ CURB-65 肺炎严重程度评分 Opens in new window ] [1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [63]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia in adults: diagnosis and management. July 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg191 [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
医院中的风险分层*
CAP 严重程度 | CURB-65 评分 | 管理决策 |
---|---|---|
高 | 4 或 5 | 安排由危重症诊疗专科医生进行紧急评估[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [63]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia in adults: diagnosis and management. July 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg191 [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults |
3 | 尽早与上级医师讨论并作为重度肺炎进行治疗[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [63]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia in adults: diagnosis and management. July 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg191 [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults | |
中度 | 2 | 考虑短期住院治疗或在医院监管下进行门诊治疗[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [63]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia in adults: diagnosis and management. July 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg191 [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults |
低 | 0 或 1 | 考虑门诊治疗[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [63]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia in adults: diagnosis and management. July 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg191 [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults |
*所有经胸部 X 射线检查确诊 CAP 的患者。 |
社区中的风险分层
CAP 严重程度 | CRB-65 | 管理决策 |
---|---|---|
高 | 3 或更高 | 立即收治入院[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [63]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia in adults: diagnosis and management. July 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg191 [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults |
中度 | 1 或 2 | 考虑转诊至医院以进行评估和治疗*[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [63]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia in adults: diagnosis and management. July 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg191 [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults |
低 | 0 | 考虑在家治疗*[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [63]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia in adults: diagnosis and management. July 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg191 [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults |
影像学检查
对于所有在医院就诊的疑似 CAP 患者,通过胸部 X 线检查确认诊断。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [63]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia in adults: diagnosis and management. July 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg191 [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
需通过胸部 X 线检查发现实变证据方可确诊 CAP。[75]Durrington HJ, Summers C. Recent changes in the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults. BMJ. 2008 Jun 21;336(7658):1429-33. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2432122 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18566081?tool=bestpractice.com
在社区环境中,根据下呼吸道感染体征和症状、局灶性胸部体征以及疾病严重程度作出诊断。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [63]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia in adults: diagnosis and management. July 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg191 [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
进一步调查
对于所有未按照预期出现改善的患者,与高年资同事进行病情讨论。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
如果患者接受治疗 3 天后未能实现预期的好转,考虑复查胸部 X 线、C 反应蛋白、白细胞计数,并进一步采样以进行微生物学检查。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
考虑转诊至呼吸科医生处。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
对于对 β-内酰胺类抗生素无应答或怀疑为非典型或病毒性病原体感染的重度 CAP 患者,采集痰或其他呼吸道样本进行聚合酶链反应检测(或其他抗原检测)。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
考虑进行初始病毒性和非典型病原体血清学检查并予以复查。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
在社区中,通过脉搏血氧测定进行氧合评估。[71]O'Driscoll BR, Howard LS, Earis J, et al. BTS guideline for oxygen use in adults in healthcare and emergency settings. Thorax. 2017 Jun;72 (Suppl 1):ii1-90. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/document-library/guidelines/emergency-oxygen/bts-guideline-for-oxygen-use-in-adults-in-healthcare-and-emergency-settings http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28507176?tool=bestpractice.com
对于 CAP 患者,血氧饱和度 <94% 是预后不良因素,且通常提示患者需要氧疗。[76]Fulmer JD, Snider GL. American College of Chest Physicians/National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute national conference on oxygen therapy. Heart Lung. 1984 Sep;13(5):550-62. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6565687?tool=bestpractice.com
对于此类患者,考虑紧急转诊至医院。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
对于大多数在社区就诊的患者来说,一般检查是没有必要的,但是,如果无法通过临床评估作出 CAP 诊断,且不确定是否需要使用抗生素,应考虑床旁 C 反应蛋白检测。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [63]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia in adults: diagnosis and management. July 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg191 [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
COVID-19 大流行期间,尽可能为所有疑似感染患者进行 SARS-CoV-2 核酸扩增检测,例如实时 PCR。[77]World Health Organization. Diagnostic testing for SARS-CoV-2: interim guidance. 2020 [internet publication]. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/diagnostic-testing-for-sars-cov-2 [78]Public Health England. COVID-19: investigation and initial clinical management of possible cases. 2020 [internet publication]. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/wuhan-novel-coronavirus-initial-investigation-of-possible-cases/investigation-and-initial-clinical-management-of-possible-cases-of-wuhan-novel-coronavirus-wn-cov-infection 请参阅专题 Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) Opens in new window。
完整建议
没有一组特定的体征和症状可预测 CAP。但是,患者通常出现:[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [63]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia in adults: diagnosis and management. July 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg191 [64]Hoare Z, Lim WS. Pneumonia: update on diagnosis and management. BMJ. 2006 May 6;332(7549):1077-9. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1458569 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16675815?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
下呼吸道感染的症状和征象:
咳嗽,伴有至少一种其他呼吸道症状:
呼吸短促 – 常见[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com
胸膜炎性胸痛
呼吸急促
黏液脓性痰 – 与细菌性肺炎有关(少量或水样痰与非典型病原体有关)[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com
至少一种全身性特征:
寒战或盗汗 – 常见,但在老年患者中较为少见[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com
发热(>38ºC [>100ºF])–老年患者可能无发热[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com
非特异性症状 – 可能包括肌痛、昏睡、周身不适、厌食。意识模糊常见于老年患者[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com
查体发现新的局灶性胸部体征,如湿罗音或支气管呼吸音
无其他可导致这些症状的原因。
切记要考虑 CAP 的非典型表现(即无明显胸部体征)。例如:
支原体肺炎年轻成人患者可表现为咽痛、头痛、恶心、腹痛和腹泻[73]Stein PD, Afzal A, Henry JW, et al. Fever in acute pulmonary embolism. Chest. 2000 Jan;117(1):39-42. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10631196?tool=bestpractice.com
军团菌肺炎患者可表现为全身不适、腹泻和意识模糊[73]Stein PD, Afzal A, Henry JW, et al. Fever in acute pulmonary embolism. Chest. 2000 Jan;117(1):39-42. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10631196?tool=bestpractice.com
免疫抑制人群罹患肺孢子菌肺炎时可能只会出现咳嗽、呼吸困难和显著缺氧[73]Stein PD, Afzal A, Henry JW, et al. Fever in acute pulmonary embolism. Chest. 2000 Jan;117(1):39-42. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10631196?tool=bestpractice.com
老年人多表现为非特异性症状(例如昏睡、周身不适、厌食、意识模糊)以及已有疾病恶化,通常无胸部体征或发热。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com
有些人会出现急性意识模糊状态。[73]Stein PD, Afzal A, Henry JW, et al. Fever in acute pulmonary embolism. Chest. 2000 Jan;117(1):39-42. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10631196?tool=bestpractice.com
在鉴别诊断时考虑症状发作的速度:
数分钟内出现症状可提示肺栓塞、气胸或心源性病因。
Practical tip
当有感染临床证据或强烈怀疑感染的成年患者出现急性恶化时,需考虑“这可能是脓毒症吗?”。[66]Royal College of Physicians. National early warning score (NEWS) 2: standardising the assessment of acute-illness severity in the NHS. Dec 2017 [internet publication]. https://www.rcplondon.ac.uk/projects/outputs/national-early-warning-score-news-2 [67]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Sepsis: recognition, diagnosis and early management. September 2017 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng51 [68]NHS England. Sepsis guidance implementation advice for adults. September 2017 [internet publication]. https://www.england.nhs.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/sepsis-guidance-implementation-advice-for-adults.pdf 请参阅 “成人脓毒症” 。
患者可能具有非特异性或非局限性症状(例如突发不适但体温正常),或可能存在多器官功能障碍和休克的重症征象。[66]Royal College of Physicians. National early warning score (NEWS) 2: standardising the assessment of acute-illness severity in the NHS. Dec 2017 [internet publication]. https://www.rcplondon.ac.uk/projects/outputs/national-early-warning-score-news-2 [67]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Sepsis: recognition, diagnosis and early management. September 2017 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng51 [68]NHS England. Sepsis guidance implementation advice for adults. September 2017 [internet publication]. https://www.england.nhs.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/sepsis-guidance-implementation-advice-for-adults.pdf
需意识到,脓毒症代表严重致死性终末感染。[79]Inada-Kim M. Introducing the suspicion of sepsis insights dashboard. Royal College of Pathologists Bulletin. 2019 Apr;186;109.
肺炎是脓毒症主要来源之一。[80]Scala R, Schultz M, Bos LDJ, et al. New Surviving Sepsis Campaign guidelines: back to the art of medicine. Eur Respir J. 2018 Jul;52(1):1701818. https://www.doi.org/10.1183/13993003.01818-2017 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29997181?tool=bestpractice.com
采用系统性方法(例如英国国家早期预警评分 2 [national early warning score 2, NEWS2] )并结合临床判断,评估脓毒症导致恶化的风险。[66]Royal College of Physicians. National early warning score (NEWS) 2: standardising the assessment of acute-illness severity in the NHS. Dec 2017 [internet publication]. https://www.rcplondon.ac.uk/projects/outputs/national-early-warning-score-news-2 [68]NHS England. Sepsis guidance implementation advice for adults. September 2017 [internet publication]. https://www.england.nhs.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/sepsis-guidance-implementation-advice-for-adults.pdf [69]Nutbeam T, Daniels R; The UK Sepsis Trust. Clinical tools [internet publication]. https://sepsistrust.org/professional-resources/clinical-tools [81]Evans L, Rhodes A, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving sepsis campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock 2021. Crit Care Med. 2021 Nov 1;49(11):e1063-143. https://journals.lww.com/ccmjournal/Fulltext/2021/11000/Surviving_Sepsis_Campaign__International.21.aspx http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34605781?tool=bestpractice.com 应查阅当地指南,了解有关您所在机构建议的方法。
如果您怀疑脓毒症,请安排高年资临床决策者(例如英国 ST4 级别医生)紧急审查:[70]Academy of Medical Royal Colleges. Statement on the initial antimicrobial treatment of sepsis V2.0. Oct 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.aomrc.org.uk/reports-guidance/statement-on-the-initial-antimicrobial-treatment-of-sepsis-v2-0
30 分钟内(对于危重患者,例如,NEWS2 评分为 7 分或以上,有脓毒性休克证据,或其他重大临床问题)。
1 小时内(对于病情严重的患者,例如,NEWS2 评分为 5 分或 6 分)。
对于所有疑似脓毒症或存在风险的患者,需遵循当地常规,给予检查和治疗。立即开始治疗。根据感染的可能性和疾病严重程度,或遵循当地常规,确定治疗紧迫性。[70]Academy of Medical Royal Colleges. Statement on the initial antimicrobial treatment of sepsis V2.0. Oct 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.aomrc.org.uk/reports-guidance/statement-on-the-initial-antimicrobial-treatment-of-sepsis-v2-0 [81]Evans L, Rhodes A, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving sepsis campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock 2021. Crit Care Med. 2021 Nov 1;49(11):e1063-143. https://journals.lww.com/ccmjournal/Fulltext/2021/11000/Surviving_Sepsis_Campaign__International.21.aspx http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34605781?tool=bestpractice.com
在社区:如果任何疑似感染的急症患者符合以下标准,应转至医院急诊科(英国通常用蓝灯救护车转诊):[67]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Sepsis: recognition, diagnosis and early management. September 2017 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng51
被认为器官功能障碍导致恶化的风险较高(通过风险分层衡量)
存在中性粒细胞减少性脓毒症的风险。
一些症状和征象更常见于特定病原体感染。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com
但是,请勿仅使用患者临床特征来预测致病病原体或指导抗生素的初始选择。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults [74]Woodhead M, Blasi F, Ewig S, et al. Guidelines for the management of adult lower respiratory tract infections: full version. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2011 Nov;17 Suppl 6:E1-59. https://www.clinicalmicrobiologyandinfection.com/article/S1198-743X(14)61404-X/fulltext http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21951385?tool=bestpractice.com
在英国成年人中导致 CAP 的典型病原体及其最常见的相关特征[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com
病原体 | 最常见的相关临床特征 | 其他特征 |
---|---|---|
肺炎链球菌 | 急性发作、高热和胸膜炎性胸痛 | 在所有病原体中最为常见 更可能见于存在心血管合并症的患者和老年患者 菌血症性肺炎链球菌感染更可能见于:
|
B 型流感嗜血杆菌 | 无特异性特征 | 更可能见于老年人和 COPD 患者 |
嗜肺军团菌 | 腹泻、脑病和其他神经系统症状,更可能重度感染以及存在多系统受累证据(例如肝功能检查结果异常、血清肌酸激酶升高) | 更可能见于无合并症的年轻患者、吸烟者、免疫功能低下人群、暴露于受污染的人工水系统(例如空调系统、水疗中心、喷泉、家庭管道系统维修)的人群 重症患者(重症监护病房的患者)发病率更高 询问是否曾到国外旅行 |
金黄色葡萄球菌 | 无特异性特征 | 更可能见于先前罹患或当前合并流行性感冒感染的患者 重症患者(重症监护病房的患者)发病率更高 询问是否出现流感症状,因为此类症状有预测价值。流感病毒感染可能出现合并/继发性金黄色葡萄球菌感染 |
在英国成年人中导致 CAP 的典型病原体及其最常见的相关特征[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com
病原体 | 最常见的相关临床特征 | 其他特征 |
---|---|---|
肺炎支原体 | 年轻成人患者可表现为咽痛、头痛、恶心、腹痛和腹泻[73]Stein PD, Afzal A, Henry JW, et al. Fever in acute pulmonary embolism. Chest. 2000 Jan;117(1):39-42. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10631196?tool=bestpractice.com | 更可能见于年轻患者 大约每 4 年出现一次周期性流行 |
肺炎嗜衣原体 | 无特异性特征 | 无 |
贝氏柯克斯体 | 干咳和高热病史 | 多见于男性。 暴露于受感染的动物源(尤其在分娩时)是主要的流行病学关联[82]Marrie TJ. Coxiella burnetii pneumonia. Eur Respir J. 2003 Apr;21(4):713-9. https://erj.ersjournals.com/content/21/4/713 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12762362?tool=bestpractice.com |
肺炎克雷伯杆菌 | 无特异性特征 | 酒精依赖者罹患菌血症性和致死性克雷伯菌肺炎的风险更高 |
采集病史时应涵盖相关危险因素,以帮助您评估患者是否罹患 CAP、下呼吸道感染或存在其他诊断。如果诊断为 CAP,还应识别可能影响治疗计划的因素。
需注意不能仅根据病史确诊 CAP。
医疗史
(*表示属于 CAP 的强危险因素。)
呼吸系统慢性疾病:
COPD*、哮喘和支气管炎与 CAP 风险增加至 2-4 倍相关[6]Torres A, Peetermans WE, Viegi G, et al. Risk factors for community-acquired pneumonia in adults in Europe: a literature review. Thorax. 2013 Nov;68(11):1057-65. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3812874 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24130229?tool=bestpractice.com
COPD 是 CAP 患者死亡的独立危险因素。[37]Molinos L, Clemente MG, Miranda B, et al. Community-acquired pneumonia in patients with and without chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. J Infect. 2009 Jun;58(6):417-24. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19329187?tool=bestpractice.com
其他慢性合并症:
慢性心脏疾病[6]Torres A, Peetermans WE, Viegi G, et al. Risk factors for community-acquired pneumonia in adults in Europe: a literature review. Thorax. 2013 Nov;68(11):1057-65. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3812874 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24130229?tool=bestpractice.com [37]Molinos L, Clemente MG, Miranda B, et al. Community-acquired pneumonia in patients with and without chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. J Infect. 2009 Jun;58(6):417-24. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19329187?tool=bestpractice.com
糖尿病[6]Torres A, Peetermans WE, Viegi G, et al. Risk factors for community-acquired pneumonia in adults in Europe: a literature review. Thorax. 2013 Nov;68(11):1057-65. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3812874 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24130229?tool=bestpractice.com [37]Molinos L, Clemente MG, Miranda B, et al. Community-acquired pneumonia in patients with and without chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. J Infect. 2009 Jun;58(6):417-24. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19329187?tool=bestpractice.com – 糖尿病患者罹患重症肺炎球菌性菌血症的风险更高。[54]Kang CI, Song JH, Kim SH, et al. Risk factors and pathogenic significance of bacteremic pneumonia in adult patients with community-acquired pneumococcal pneumonia. J Infect. 2013 Jan;66(1):34-40. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22922634?tool=bestpractice.com
Practical tip
对于误吸风险较高的患者,如慢性吞咽困难者、器质性神经系统疾病患者(例如帕金森病、卒中、痴呆)或难以保护气道的患者,考虑吸入性肺炎。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com
社会史
年龄 ≥65 岁*
CAP 发病率随着年龄增长而显著上升。高龄与更高的 CAP 死亡率相关。[10]Welte T, Torres A, Nathwani D. Clinical and economic burden of community-acquired pneumonia among adults in Europe. Thorax. 2012 Jan;67(1):71-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20729232?tool=bestpractice.com
居住在养老院*
据报告,居住在养老院的人群由肺炎导致的死亡率达 55%。[83]Mehr DR, Zweig SC, Kruse RL, et al. Mortality from lower respiratory infection in nursing home residents: a pilot prospective community-based study. J Fam Pract. 1998 Oct;47(4):298-304. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9789516?tool=bestpractice.com [84]Norman DC. Pneumonia in the elderly: empiric antimicrobial therapy. Geriatrics. 1991 Dec;46(12):26-32. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1743528?tool=bestpractice.com
居住在养老院的人群发生吸入性肺炎的风险也有所增加。[85]Vergis EN, Brennen C, Wagener M, et al. Pneumonia in long-term care: a prospective case-control study of risk factors and impact on survival. Arch Intern Med. 2001 Oct 22;161(19):2378-81. https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/fullarticle/649245 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11606155?tool=bestpractice.com
与儿童接触*
经常与儿童接触可导致 CAP 风险升高。[49]Almirall J, Bolíbar I, Serra-Prat M, et al. New evidence of risk factors for community-acquired pneumonia: a population-based study. Eur Respir J. 2008 Jun;31(6):1274-84. http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/31/6/1274.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18216057?tool=bestpractice.com
男性的 CAP 程度比女性更重,因此男性患者的总体死亡率更高,尤其年龄较大的男性。[86]Barbagelata E, Cillóniz C, Dominedò C, et al. Gender differences in community-acquired pneumonia. Minerva Med. 2020 Apr;111(2):153-65. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32166931?tool=bestpractice.com
生活方式史
饮酒/酒精滥用*
饮酒或大量饮酒的人与不饮酒或少量饮酒的人相比,罹患 CAP 的风险高 83%(相对危险度为 1.83)。[43]Simou E, Britton J, Leonardi-Bee J. Alcohol and the risk of pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open. 2018 Aug 22;8(8):e022344. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6112384 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30135186?tool=bestpractice.com 酒精每日摄入量每增加 10-20 g,CAP 风险增加 8%。[43]Simou E, Britton J, Leonardi-Bee J. Alcohol and the risk of pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open. 2018 Aug 22;8(8):e022344. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6112384 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30135186?tool=bestpractice.com
吸烟*
吸烟是发生 CAP 的独立危险因素。[41]Baskaran V, Murray RL, Hunter A, et al. Effect of tobacco smoking on the risk of developing community acquired pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2019 Jul 18;14(7):e0220204. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6638981 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31318967?tool=bestpractice.com
在家中被动吸烟也是 65 岁或以上人群罹患 CAP 的危险因素。[42]Almirall J, Serra-Prat M, Bolíbar I, et al. Passive smoking at home is a risk factor for community-acquired pneumonia in older adults: a population-based case-control study. BMJ Open. 2014 Jun 13;4(6):e005133. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4067857 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24928592?tool=bestpractice.com [41]Baskaran V, Murray RL, Hunter A, et al. Effect of tobacco smoking on the risk of developing community acquired pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2019 Jul 18;14(7):e0220204. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6638981 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31318967?tool=bestpractice.com
口腔卫生不佳
不良口腔卫生(尤其是牙齿感觉异常和佩戴假牙者)可导致成人发生 CAP 的风险增加。[87]Rodriguez F, Bolíbar I, Serra-Prat M, et al. Poor oral health as risk factor for community-acquired pneumonia. J Pulm Respir Med. 2014 Sep 26;4(5):1000203. https://www.omicsonline.org/open-access/poor-oral-health-as-risk-factor-for-communityacquired-pneumonia-2161-105X.1000203.pdf
用药史
质子泵抑制剂、H2 受体拮抗剂和阿片类药物(尤其是具有免疫抑制作用的阿片类药物)与 CAP 相关。[59]Edelman EJ, Gordon KS, Crothers K, et al. Association of prescribed opioids with increased risk of community-acquired pneumonia among patients with and without HIV. JAMA Intern Med. 2019 Mar 1;179(3):297-304. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30615036?tool=bestpractice.com
进行全面检查,尤其是针对心脏-呼吸系统的检查,以识别符合 CAP 的特征。
应评估以下内容:
发热( >38ºC [>100ºF])
呼吸频率加快
心动过速
局灶性胸部体征 – 可能无任何体征,也可能存在以下部分或全部体征:
湿啰音
支气管呼吸音
胸部扩张度下降
叩诊浊音(提示实变和/或胸腔积液)
空气进入量减少。
如果临床表现提示其他诊断,例如上呼吸道感染、 深静脉血栓,或肺栓塞,应额外关注其余部位(例如喉、下肢)。
在医院内
所有就诊患者
对于所有在医院就诊的疑似 CAP 患者,在医院就诊后的 4 小时内应尽快进行胸部 X 线检查以确认诊断。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [63]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia in adults: diagnosis and management. July 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg191 [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
胸部 X 线检查显示新发阴影(实变)即可确诊 CAP[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [63]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia in adults: diagnosis and management. July 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg191 [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
若胸部 X 线检查未见实变,需对患者进行再评估。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com
Practical tip
高质量的胸片对于确保准确诊断和避免不恰当地开具抗生素非常重要。一项研究报告,在住院接受 CAP 治疗的患者中,29% 无任何影像学异常。[88]Kanwar M, Brar N, Khatib R, et al. Misdiagnosis of community-acquired pneumonia and inappropriate utilization of antibiotics: side effects of the 4-h antibiotic administration rule. Chest. 2007 Jun;131(6):1865-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17400668?tool=bestpractice.com
请记住,更难从 III 级肥胖患者(体重指数 ≥40)中获得高分辨率图像。
仅用于特定情况
如果 X 线成像质量差或实变阴影边界不清,考虑胸部计算机体层成像(computed tomography, CT)扫描。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com
对于“复杂性”肺炎或胸部 X 线检查显示非典型变化(如空洞、多发实变病灶或胸腔积液)的患者,考虑胸部 CT 扫描或其他影像学检查。[89]Müller NL, Franquet T, Lee KS. In: McAllister L, ed. Imaging of pulmonary infections. Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer/Lipponcott Williams & Wilkins; 2007.
X 线检查结果 | 进一步影像学检查 | 考虑其他诊断 |
---|---|---|
空洞 | 胸部 CT 扫描 |
|
多发实变(请注意,区别性特征的重点在于多发性,而非实变) | 胸部 CT 扫描 |
|
胸膜腔积液 | 胸部超声 +/- 超声引导下抽吸 +/- 胸部 CT 扫描 |
|
Practical tip
复杂性”肺炎是指并发肺炎旁胸腔积液(与肺炎感染相关的渗出性胸腔积液)、脓胸(胸膜腔内积脓)、脓肿、气胸、坏死性肺炎或支气管胸膜瘘的肺炎。
约 40% 的肺炎住院患者会出现肺炎旁胸腔积液。[90]Sahn SA. Diagnosis and management of parapneumonic effusions and empyema. Clin Infect Dis. 2007 Dec;45(11):1480-6. https://academic.oup.com/cid/article/45/11/1480/334422 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17990232?tool=bestpractice.com 脓胸是胸腔积液的一种,很难通过胸片与肺炎旁胸腔积液进行鉴别。
CT 扫描肺炎旁胸腔积液(与脓胸相对)提示性发现包括:[91]Webb WR, Higgins CB. Thoracic imaging: pulmonary and cardiovascular radiology. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2010.
通常积液量较少
半月征正常
依赖型
无腔室形成。
胸膜分裂征”并不典型,对脓胸更具特异性。
如果症状迅速出现(数分钟内)或感染性症状出现前已有疼痛和呼吸困难,考虑使用 CT 肺动脉造影(CT pulmonary angiography, CTPA)排除肺栓塞。[92]Konstantinides SV, Meyer G, Becattini C, et al. 2019 ESC Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of acute pulmonary embolism developed in collaboration with the European Respiratory Society (ERS): The Task Force for the diagnosis and management of acute pulmonary embolism of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Eur Respir J. 2019 Sep;54(3):1901647. https://erj.ersjournals.com/content/54/3/1901647.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31473594?tool=bestpractice.com
在社区中
对于在社区就诊的疑似 CAP 患者,无需申请胸部 X 线检查,除非:[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [63]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia in adults: diagnosis and management. July 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg191 [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
对诊断存有怀疑
认为患者有潜在肺部疾病风险(例如患者有肺癌的危险因素)
复查时发现治疗后病情好转程度不能令人满意。
在社区环境中,根据下呼吸道感染体征和症状、局灶性胸部体征以及疾病严重程度作出诊断。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [63]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia in adults: diagnosis and management. July 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg191 [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
争议话题:超声在 CAP 诊断中的应用
虽然胸片显示新发阴影且无法归因于任何其他原因是诊断肺炎的“金标准”,但在社区环境中此方法不一定可行,而且涉及辐射暴露。
新兴证据表明,对于 CAP 患者,肺部超声可能是一种准确的诊断性检查。但是,与胸部 X 线摄影相比,在实践中使用超声的优势尚不明确。
一项荟萃分析纳入了 12 项评估肺部超声对 CAP 患者诊断准确性的研究,发现其灵敏度和特异度分别为 0.88 和 0.86。[93]Long L, Zhao HT, Zhang ZY, et al. Lung ultrasound for the diagnosis of pneumonia in adults: a meta-analysis. Medicine (Baltimore). 2017 Jan;96(3):e5713. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5279077 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28099332?tool=bestpractice.com 但存在局限性,如结果存在很大程度的差异,以及文献中所涉及的研究缺乏异质性。
需要进一步的证据才能给出相关建议。
一般性检查
在医院环境中
为所有收治入院患者安排以下检查。
首先检测血氧饱和度及尿素(和电解质),因为这些指标有助于指导支持性治疗和了解疾病严重程度,具体如下:[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
使用脉搏血氧测定(最好在吸入空气时测定)评估血氧饱和度。
对于 CAP 患者,血氧饱和度 <94%是预后不良因素,并且可能提示患者需要氧疗。[76]Fulmer JD, Snider GL. American College of Chest Physicians/National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute national conference on oxygen therapy. Heart Lung. 1984 Sep;13(5):550-62. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6565687?tool=bestpractice.com
对接受氧疗的患者进行动脉血气(arterial blood gas, ABG)检测。[71]O'Driscoll BR, Howard LS, Earis J, et al. BTS guideline for oxygen use in adults in healthcare and emergency settings. Thorax. 2017 Jun;72 (Suppl 1):ii1-90. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/document-library/guidelines/emergency-oxygen/bts-guideline-for-oxygen-use-in-adults-in-healthcare-and-emergency-settings http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28507176?tool=bestpractice.com
对以下患者检测 ABG:SpO2 <94% 的患者、存在高碳酸血症性呼吸衰竭(CO2 潴留)风险的患者、所有重度 CAP 患者。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com
检测尿素(和电解质)以了解疾病的严重程度。
尿素 >7 mmol/L(>19.6 mg/dL)在 6 分制 CURB-65 评分(用于评估疾病严重程度)中计 1 分。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com
慢性肾衰竭是 CAP 患者的重要死亡危险因素。[56]Chidiac C, Che D, Pires-Cronenberger S, et al. Factors associated with hospital mortality in community-acquired legionellosis in France. Eur Respir J. 2012 Apr;39(4):963-70. http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/39/4/963.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22005914?tool=bestpractice.com
Practical tip
务必清晰地记录吸入氧浓度,因为这对于判读血气结果至关重要。
申请全血细胞计数、C 反应蛋白和肝功能检查,以帮助识别潜在或相关病变并获取基线数据。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
全血细胞计数 。白细胞增多常见于 CAP 患者:
白细胞计数 >15 x 109L 提示细菌性(尤其是肺炎链球菌)病因。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com
检测C 反应蛋白(C-reactive protein, CRP)水平有助于排除其他急性呼吸系统疾病,并且可获取基线数据:
水平 >100 mg/L 提示可能为肺炎[94]Woodhead M. New guidelines for the management of adult lower respiratory tract infections. Eur Respir J. 2011 Dec;38(6):1250-1. http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/38/6/1250.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22130759?tool=bestpractice.com
CRP 呈高水平并不一定表明肺炎为细菌所致或 SARS-CoV-2 所致,但 CRP 呈低水平使继发性细菌感染可能性降低。[95]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. COVID-19 rapid guideline: managing COVID-19. Mar 2024 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng191
水平 <20 mg/L 伴症状持续超过 24 小时,提示肺炎可能性极低[94]Woodhead M. New guidelines for the management of adult lower respiratory tract infections. Eur Respir J. 2011 Dec;38(6):1250-1. http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/38/6/1250.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22130759?tool=bestpractice.com
CRP 在第 4 天未能下降 50% 或更多与 30 天死亡风险增加、机械通气和/或正性肌力支持需求以及并发症相关。[96]Chalmers JD, Singanayagam A, Hill AT. C-reactive protein is an independent predictor of severity in community-acquired pneumonia. Am J Med. 2008 Mar;121(3):219-25. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18328306?tool=bestpractice.com
肝功能检查以评估肝功能:
在患有潜在肝病和军团菌感染的患者中结果异常[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com
慢性肝病是因肺炎链球菌肺炎而住院的患者出现肺部并发症的危险因素。[58]Cillóniz C, Ewig S, Polverino E, et al. Pulmonary complications of pneumococcal community-acquired pneumonia: incidence, predictors, and outcomes. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2012 Nov;18(11):1134-42. http://www.clinicalmicrobiologyandinfection.com/article/S1198-743X%2814%2960751-5/fulltext http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22044658?tool=bestpractice.com
考虑检查血清降钙素原。在危重症诊疗环境中和急诊科,越来越多的人检查基线降钙素原,用于指导高度疑似脓毒症患者和疑似细菌感染患者的抗生素治疗决策。[81]Evans L, Rhodes A, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving sepsis campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock 2021. Crit Care Med. 2021 Nov 1;49(11):e1063-143. https://journals.lww.com/ccmjournal/Fulltext/2021/11000/Surviving_Sepsis_Campaign__International.21.aspx http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34605781?tool=bestpractice.com [97]Lam SW, Bauer SR, Fowler R, et al. Systematic review and meta-analysis of procalcitonin-guidance versus usual care for antimicrobial management in critically ill patients: focus on subgroups based on antibiotic iInitiation, cessation, or mixed strategies. Crit Care Med. 2018 May;46(5):684-90. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29293146?tool=bestpractice.com [98]Akagi T, Nagata N, Wakamatsu K, et al. Procalcitonin-guided antibiotic discontinuation might shorten the duration of antibiotic treatment without increasing pneumonia recurrence. Am J Med Sci. 2019 Jul;358(1):33-44. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31084909?tool=bestpractice.com [99]Christ-Crain M, Stolz D, Bingisser R, et al. Procalcitonin guidance significantly reduces antibiotic duration in community-acquired pneumonia: the 'ProCAP' study. Crit Care. 2005;9(Suppl 1):P166. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4098316 [100]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Procalcitonin testing for diagnosing and monitoring sepsis (ADVIA Centaur BRAHMS PCT assay, BRAHMS PCT Sensitive Kryptor assay, Elecsys BRAHMS PCT assay, LIAISON BRAHMS PCT assay and VIDAS BRAHMS PCT assay) [DG18]. Oct 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/dg18
降钙素原升高与细菌性肺炎相关,而病毒性肺炎和非典型肺炎的该指标水平较低。对于患有肺炎链球菌肺炎的患者,降钙素原会显著升高。[101]Menéndez R, Sahuquillo-Arce JM, Reyes S, et al. Cytokine activation patterns and biomarkers are influenced by microorganisms in community-acquired pneumonia. Chest. 2012 Jun;141(6):1537-45. https://www.doi.org/10.1378/chest.11-1446 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22194589?tool=bestpractice.com [102]Ugajin M, Yamaki K, Hirasawa N, et al. Predictive values of semi-quantitative procalcitonin test and common biomarkers for the clinical outcomes of community-acquired pneumonia. Respir Care. 2014 Apr;59(4):564-73. https://www.doi.org/10.4187/respcare.02807 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24170911?tool=bestpractice.com
降钙素原是降钙素的肽前体,负责维持钙稳态。 目前,降钙素原尚未纳入主要指南中,但它的实际应用越来越广泛。
对所有胸腔积液患者进行早期胸腔穿刺,因为这可以显示符合肺炎旁胸腔积液或脓胸的胸膜腔内感染。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
对于脓胸或胸腔积液清晰且 pH 值 <7.2 的患者,引流胸腔积液。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com
监测
观测各项指标,最初至少每日两次,对于危重症诊疗病房(高依赖病房 [high-dependency unit] 或重症监护病房)的患者,应增加频率(例如每小时一次)[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
脉搏
血压
呼吸频率
体温
血压
血氧饱和度(同时记录吸入氧浓度)
精神状态。
对于所有重度 CAP(死亡风险高)患者,至少每 12 小时复查一次,直至病情好转。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults 此项工作应由上级医师及医疗团队完成。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
在社区中
在社区接受治疗的大部分 CAP 患者无需进行一般性检查。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults 但是,如果无法通过临床评估作出 CAP 诊断,且不确定是否需要开具抗生素,应考虑进行床旁即时 C 反应蛋白(C-reactive protein, CRP)检测 。[63]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia in adults: diagnosis and management. July 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg191
通过脉搏血氧测定评估氧合。[71]O'Driscoll BR, Howard LS, Earis J, et al. BTS guideline for oxygen use in adults in healthcare and emergency settings. Thorax. 2017 Jun;72 (Suppl 1):ii1-90. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/document-library/guidelines/emergency-oxygen/bts-guideline-for-oxygen-use-in-adults-in-healthcare-and-emergency-settings http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28507176?tool=bestpractice.com
对于 CAP 患者,血氧饱和度 <94% 是预后不良因素,并且可能提示患者需要氧疗。[76]Fulmer JD, Snider GL. American College of Chest Physicians/National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute national conference on oxygen therapy. Heart Lung. 1984 Sep;13(5):550-62. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6565687?tool=bestpractice.com
对于此类患者,考虑紧急转诊至医院。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
微生物学检查
请注意,个体患者的微生物学检测范围取决于病情严重程度、是否存在危险因素(例如 COPD)以及疫情暴发情况(例如军团菌肺炎)。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
在医院内
对于在医院就诊的轻度 CAP 患者,无需常规进行微生物学检测。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults 在此类患者中,经验性抗生素治疗与预后良好相关。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com
血培养
对于所有中度或重度 CAP 患者(根据 CURB-65 评分确定严重程度 – 参见管理 - 建议章节),进行血培养,最好在抗生素给药前完成。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [63]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia in adults: diagnosis and management. July 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg191 [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
对于中度或重度 CAP 患者,细菌分离在确定致病微生物方面具有高度特异性。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [63]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia in adults: diagnosis and management. July 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg191 [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
菌血症也是疾病严重程度的标志。但是,许多 CAP 患者不会伴发菌血症。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com 可能与菌血症相关的 CAP 致病微生物包括:[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com
肺炎链球菌(见于约 60% 的血培养呈阳性者)[103]Marrie TJ, Durant H, Yates L. Community-acquired pneumonia requiring hospitalization: 5-year prospective study. Rev Infect Dis. 1989 Jul-Aug;11(4):586-99. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2772465?tool=bestpractice.com
流感嗜血杆菌(见于 2% - 13% 的血培养呈阳性者)[103]Marrie TJ, Durant H, Yates L. Community-acquired pneumonia requiring hospitalization: 5-year prospective study. Rev Infect Dis. 1989 Jul-Aug;11(4):586-99. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2772465?tool=bestpractice.com
金黄色葡萄球菌和肺炎克雷伯菌。
对于已确诊的轻度且无共存疾病的 CAP 患者,无需申请血培养。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
争议话题:血培养
有关对 CAP 住院患者常规进行血培养的实用性,目前尚存争议。主要是因为该项检查敏感性低、成本较高且其结果极少影响抗微生物药物的选择。
在一项针对 355 名 CAP 住院患者的研究中,血培养结果呈假阳性的比例为 10%,真阳性结果占 9%(95% CI,3.3%-5.5%)。[104]Corbo J, Friedman B, Bijur P, et al. Limited usefulness of initial blood cultures in community acquired pneumonia. Emerg Med J. 2004 Jul;21(4):446-8. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1726373 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15208227?tool=bestpractice.com
仅 5%(95% CI,3%-8%)的患者根据血培养结果更改了抗生素治疗方案。[104]Corbo J, Friedman B, Bijur P, et al. Limited usefulness of initial blood cultures in community acquired pneumonia. Emerg Med J. 2004 Jul;21(4):446-8. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1726373 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15208227?tool=bestpractice.com
但是,尽管存在上述限制,大部分专家仍然建议对重度 CAP 患者进行血培养。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com
痰培养
对以下患者送检痰液进行培养:
所有中度或重度 CAP 患者(根据 CURB-65 评分确定)。[63]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia in adults: diagnosis and management. July 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg191 英国胸科协会建议,对于中度 CAP 患者,仅在之前没有接受过抗生素治疗的情况下才进行痰培养[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
病情无任何改善的患者(无论疾病严重程度如何)(痰或其他呼吸道样本)。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
痰培养物革兰染色
如果您所在的当地实验室具备相应条件,应为重度 CAP 或有并发症的患者提供痰培养物革兰染色。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
革兰染色是一种反映可能存在的病原体的直接指标,有助于解读培养结果。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
证据:痰液革兰染色
一项针对 1390 名菌血症性 CAP 患者的前瞻性研究发现痰液革兰染色的灵敏度如下:[105]Anevlavis S, Petroglou N, Tzavaras A, et al. A prospective study of the diagnostic utility of sputum Gram stain in pneumonia. J Infect. 2009 Aug;59(2):83-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19564045?tool=bestpractice.com
针对肺炎链球菌肺炎为 82%
流感嗜血杆菌性肺炎为 79%
针对葡萄球菌肺炎为 76%。
特异性从 93% 至 96% 不等。
Practical tip
不需要对所有患者常规进行痰液革兰染色。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com 此检测的灵敏度和特异度较低,对于初期管理通常帮助不大。其问题包括:[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com
患者可能无法提供良好的样本
之前已暴露于抗生素
样本运输和处理延迟会降低细菌病原体检出率
样本受到上呼吸道菌群(可能包括肺炎链球菌和“大肠杆菌群”等潜在病原体)污染导致结果难以判读,在已接受抗生素用药的患者中尤其如此。
尿抗原检测
对于中度或重度 CAP 患者,考虑肺炎链球菌尿抗原检测。[63]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia in adults: diagnosis and management. July 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg191
尿抗原检测适用于诊断成人肺炎链球菌肺炎,而且相对于血液/痰液培养,受先前抗生素治疗经验的影响较小。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
证据:针对肺炎链球菌肺炎的尿抗原检测
研究显示,肺炎链球菌尿抗原检测的敏感性显著高于常规血液或痰液培养。[106]Smith MD, Derrington P, Evans R, et al. Rapid diagnosis of bacteremic pneumococcal infections in adults by using the Binax NOW Streptococcus pneumoniae urinary antigen test: a prospective, controlled clinical evaluation. J Clin Microbiol. 2003 Jul;41(7):2810-3. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC165271 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12843005?tool=bestpractice.com
在开始抗微生物药物治疗后长达 7 天内,80%-90% 的患者结果仍然呈阳性。[106]Smith MD, Derrington P, Evans R, et al. Rapid diagnosis of bacteremic pneumococcal infections in adults by using the Binax NOW Streptococcus pneumoniae urinary antigen test: a prospective, controlled clinical evaluation. J Clin Microbiol. 2003 Jul;41(7):2810-3. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC165271 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12843005?tool=bestpractice.com
争议话题:进行肺炎链球菌检测的患者人群
英国胸科协会(British Thoracic Society, BTS)和英国国家卫生与临床优化研究所(National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, NICE)指南对于哪些患者应接受肺炎链球菌肺炎尿抗原检测的建议有所不同。
BTS 建议对所有重度 CAP 患者进行检测,[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com 但 NICE 建议在中度或重度 CAP 患者中考虑该检测。[63]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia in adults: diagnosis and management. July 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg191 [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
BTS 之后对两份指南(2009 年发布的 BTS 指南和 2014 年发布的 NICE 指南)中的关键建议进行了比较,总结称:两者之间无重大差异。对于存在差异之处,临床医生应遵循 NICE 指南而非 BTS 指南。[107]Lim WS, Smith DL, Wise MP, et al. British Thoracic Society community acquired pneumonia guideline and the NICE pneumonia guideline: how they fit together. Thorax. 2015 Jul;70(7):698-700. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4484256 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25977290?tool=bestpractice.com
对于所有存在特定危险因素的患者以及疫情暴发期间的所有 CAP 患者,应进行军团菌尿抗原检测。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults 对于中度或重度 CAP 患者,也应考虑该检测。[63]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia in adults: diagnosis and management. July 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg191
及时诊断军团菌肺炎非常重要,因为该病死亡率高,且具有重大公共卫生影响。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
可采用酶联免疫法测定嗜肺军团菌尿抗原,从而在疾病早期快速获得结果。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
酶联免疫法军团菌抗原检测对于嗜肺军团菌血清 1 型具有高度特异性(>95%)和敏感性(80%),而该血清型是英国散发性 CAP 和国外旅行所致 CAP 的最常见原因。[108]Birtles RJ, Harrison TG, Samuel D, et al. Evaluation of urinary antigen ELISA for diagnosing Legionella pneumophila serogroup 1 infection. J Clin Pathol. 1990 Aug;43(8):685-90. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC502655 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2401738?tool=bestpractice.com
争议话题:应进行军团菌检测的患者人群
英国胸科协会(British Thoracic Society, BTS)和英国国家卫生与临床优化研究所(National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, NICE)指南对于哪些患者应接受军团菌肺炎尿抗原检测的建议有所不同。
BTS 建议仅对重度 CAP 患者、具有危险因素的患者以及疫情暴发期间的所有 CAP 患者进行检测,[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com 但 NICE 建议临床医生在中度或重度 CAP 患者中考虑该检测。[63]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia in adults: diagnosis and management. July 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg191 [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
BTS 之后对两份指南(2009 年发布的 BTS 指南和 2014 年发布的 NICE 指南)中的关键建议进行了比较,总结称:两者之间无重大差异。对于存在差异之处,临床医生应遵循 NICE 指南而非 BTS 指南。[107]Lim WS, Smith DL, Wise MP, et al. British Thoracic Society community acquired pneumonia guideline and the NICE pneumonia guideline: how they fit together. Thorax. 2015 Jul;70(7):698-700. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4484256 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25977290?tool=bestpractice.com
通过此次比较,BTS 还表示,仍然建议对有危险因素的患者以及疫情暴发期间的所有 CAP 患者进行军团菌检测,因为 NICE 未对此作出说明。[107]Lim WS, Smith DL, Wise MP, et al. British Thoracic Society community acquired pneumonia guideline and the NICE pneumonia guideline: how they fit together. Thorax. 2015 Jul;70(7):698-700. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4484256 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25977290?tool=bestpractice.com
果军团菌尿抗原检测呈阳性,切记采集呼吸道样本(如在支气管镜检查时采样)进行痰培养以确定军团菌属种。这有助于调查疫情暴发情况并追踪源头,以预防后续病例的发生。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
聚合酶链反应(polymerase chain reaction, PCR)和血清学检测
在以下情况下,对于重度 CAP 患者,采集痰或其他呼吸道样本进行 PCR 以确定是否存在呼吸道病毒(甲型和乙型流感病毒、1-3 型副流感病毒、腺病毒、呼吸道合胞病毒)和非典型病原体(肺炎支原体、肺炎衣原体、鹦鹉热衣原体、贝纳柯克斯体和耶氏肺孢子菌 [如有相关风险]):[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
患者对 β-内酰胺类抗生素无应答
如果高度怀疑存在“非典型”病原体。
COVID-19 大流行期间,尽可能为所有疑似感染患者进行 SARS-CoV-2 核酸扩增检测,例如实时 PCR。[77]World Health Organization. Diagnostic testing for SARS-CoV-2: interim guidance. 2020 [internet publication]. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/diagnostic-testing-for-sars-cov-2 [78]Public Health England. COVID-19: investigation and initial clinical management of possible cases. 2020 [internet publication]. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/wuhan-novel-coronavirus-initial-investigation-of-possible-cases/investigation-and-initial-clinical-management-of-possible-cases-of-wuhan-novel-coronavirus-wn-cov-infection 请参阅专题 Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) Opens in new window
通常无法根据征象和症状鉴别社区获得性细菌性肺炎与 COVID-19。然而,细菌性肺炎患者更易表现为症状和脓痰的迅速出现。他们不太容易出现肌痛、嗅觉丧失或胸膜性疼痛。[109]Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine; Heneghan C, Pluddemann A, Mahtani KR. Differentiating viral from bacterial pneumonia. 2020 [internet publication]. https://www.cebm.net/covid-19/differentiating-viral-from-bacterial-pneumonia
在以下情况下,对中度或轻度 CAP 患者考虑尿抗原检测、采集上呼吸道(例如鼻咽拭子)或下呼吸道(例如痰液)样本进行 PCR 或进行血清学检查:[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com
在疫情暴发期间(例如军团菌病)
支原体流行期间,或
存在特定临床或流行病学原因
如有条件,应首选 PCR 而非血清学检查。
在社区中
对于在社区就诊的 CAP 患者,请勿常规进行微生物学检测,因为:[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [63]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia in adults: diagnosis and management. July 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg191 [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
此类患者通常病情不重,且死亡风险较低[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com
标本送至实验室不及时会降低痰培养的病原菌检出率(尤其是肺炎链球菌),而且全科医生通常太晚收到结果,无法指导初期管理。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com
仅在以下情况下考虑在社区环境中进行微生物学检测:[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
经验性抗生素治疗未能改善患者症状
考虑痰液检查
患者持续咳痰,尤其是患者同时还存在周身不适、体重下降、盗汗或具备结核病危险因素(例如种族、社会剥夺、高龄、结核病既往史、结核病接触史)时
考虑采集痰液检查是否存在结核杆菌
存在临床或流行病学原因,如疫情暴发期间(例如军团菌病)或支原体流行期间
考虑尿抗原检测、采集上呼吸道(例如鼻咽拭子)或下呼吸道(例如痰液)样本进行 PCR 或进行血清学检查:如有条件,应首选 PCR 而非血清学检查。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
COVID-19 大流行期间,尽可能为所有疑似感染患者进行 SARS-CoV-2 核酸扩增检测,例如实时 PCR。[77]World Health Organization. Diagnostic testing for SARS-CoV-2: interim guidance. 2020 [internet publication]. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/diagnostic-testing-for-sars-cov-2 [78]Public Health England. COVID-19: investigation and initial clinical management of possible cases. 2020 [internet publication]. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/wuhan-novel-coronavirus-initial-investigation-of-possible-cases/investigation-and-initial-clinical-management-of-possible-cases-of-wuhan-novel-coronavirus-wn-cov-infection 请参阅专题 Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) Opens in new window
英国胸科协会(British Thoracic Society, BTS)和英国国家卫生与临床优化研究所(National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, NICE)针对微生物学检查的建议汇总[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [63]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia in adults: diagnosis and management. July 2022 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg191 [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
CAP 严重程度和治疗场所 | 首选微生物学检查 |
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重度(CURB-65 = 3-5;CRB-65 = 3-4):在医院接受治疗 |
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中度(CURB-65 = 2;CRB-65 = 1-2):在医院接受治疗 |
|
轻度(CURB-65 = 0-1;CRB-65 = 0):在家或医院接受治疗 |
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*如有条件,应首选 PCR 而非血清学检查。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults |
Practical tip
在常规临床实践中,仅在约三分之一至四分之一的 CAP 住院患者中识别出病原体。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com 此外,找出 CAP 致病病原体并获取其药敏试验结果极为重要,因为:[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com
有助于选择适当的抗生素治疗方案。一旦确定了病原体,除非怀疑为双重感染,否则建议改用靶向性窄谱抗生素。
可发现某些对公共卫生有重大影响的病原体和/或可导致严重疾病且所需治疗方法不同于标准经验性抗生素疗法的病原体。其中包括:
军团菌种
甲型和乙型流感,包括甲型 H5N1 禽流感和甲型 H7N9 禽流感
中东呼吸综合征冠状病毒(Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus, MERS-CoV)和严重急性呼吸综合征冠状病毒(severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus, SARS-CoV)
社区获得性耐甲氧西林金黄色葡萄球菌(community-associated methicillin-resistant S aureus, CA-MRSA)
生物恐怖主义制剂
其他新兴病原体
可监测致 CAP 微生物谱随时间推移的变化。这对于确立药敏模式非常重要。
在医院内
对于所有未按照预期出现改善的患者,与高年资同事进行病情讨论。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com
如果患者接受治疗 3 天后未能实现预期的好转,考虑复查胸部 X 线、C 反应蛋白(C-reactive protein, CRP)、白细胞计数,并进一步采样以进行微生物学检查。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
CRP 在第 4 天未能下降 50% 或更多与 30 天死亡风险增加、机械通气和/或正性肌力支持需求以及并发症相关。[96]Chalmers JD, Singanayagam A, Hill AT. C-reactive protein is an independent predictor of severity in community-acquired pneumonia. Am J Med. 2008 Mar;121(3):219-25. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18328306?tool=bestpractice.com
Practical tip
临床改善指标:[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
发热消退 >24 小时
脉率 <100 次/分
呼吸急促消退
临床表现显示水合状态良好,可以口服补液
低血压消退
无缺氧
白细胞计数改善
非菌血症性感染
无军团菌、葡萄球菌或革兰氏阴性肠杆菌感染的微生物学证据
无胃肠道吸收问题。
考虑转诊至呼吸科医生处。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
对于对 β-内酰胺类抗生素无应答或怀疑非典型或病毒性病原体感染的重度 CAP 患者,采集痰或其他呼吸道样本进行 PCR(或其他抗原检测)。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
在社区中
通过脉搏血氧测定评估氧合。[71]O'Driscoll BR, Howard LS, Earis J, et al. BTS guideline for oxygen use in adults in healthcare and emergency settings. Thorax. 2017 Jun;72 (Suppl 1):ii1-90. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/document-library/guidelines/emergency-oxygen/bts-guideline-for-oxygen-use-in-adults-in-healthcare-and-emergency-settings http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28507176?tool=bestpractice.com
对于 CAP 患者,血氧饱和度 <94% 是预后不良因素,并且可能提示患者需要氧疗。[76]Fulmer JD, Snider GL. American College of Chest Physicians/National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute national conference on oxygen therapy. Heart Lung. 1984 Sep;13(5):550-62. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6565687?tool=bestpractice.com
考虑将此类患者紧急转诊至医院。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
对于恢复良好的 CAP 患者,不要在出院前复查胸部 X 线。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
对于以下患者(无论是否收治入院),在大约 6 周后于恢复期复查胸部 X 线:[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
症状或体征持续存在
存在较高潜在恶性肿瘤风险(尤其是吸烟者和年龄 >50 岁的人群)。
Practical tip
CAP 恢复期间影像学变化的消退时间相对较长,慢于临床恢复。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com
对于治疗完成后第 6 周左右仍持续存在体征、症状和影像学异常的患者,考虑支气管镜检查。[1]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64(suppl 3):iii1-55. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com [65]British Thoracic Society. 2015 - Annotated BTS guideline for the management of CAP in adults (2009) summary of recommendations. Jan 2015 [internet publication]. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/pneumonia-adults
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