肺炎链球菌(也称为肺炎球菌)是各种严重程度 CAP 和不同年龄 CAP 患者中最常见的致病病原体。[8]Rice LB. Antimicrobial resistance in gram-positive bacteria. Am J Med. 2006 Jun;119(suppl 1):S11-9.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16735146?tool=bestpractice.com
[9]Cillóniz C, Ewig S, Polverino E, et al. Microbial aetiology of community-acquired pneumonia and its relation to severity. Thorax. 2011 Apr;66(4):340-6.
http://thorax.bmj.com/content/66/4/340.long
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21257985?tool=bestpractice.com
[10]Cillóniz C, Ewig S, Polverino E, et al. Community-acquired pneumonia in outpatients: aetiology and outcomes. Eur Respir J. 2012 Oct;40(4):931-8.
http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/40/4/931.long
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22267760?tool=bestpractice.com
[11]Cilloniz C, Torres A, Polverino E, et al. Community-acquired lung respiratory infections in HIV-infected patients: microbial aetiology and outcome. Eur Respir J. 2014 Jun;43(6):1698-708.
http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/43/6/1698.long
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24525448?tool=bestpractice.com
[12]Almirall J, Boixeda R, Bolíbar I, et al. Differences in the etiology of community-acquired pneumonia according to site of care: a population-based study. Respir Med. 2007 Oct;101(10):2168-75.
http://www.resmedjournal.com/article/S0954-6111%2807%2900194-1/fulltext
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17629472?tool=bestpractice.com
然而,其他研究已发现流行性感冒病毒是成年人患 CAP 的最常见原因。[5]Jain S, Self WH, Wunderink RG, et al. Community-acquired pneumonia requiring hospitalization among US adults. N Engl J Med. 2015 Jul 30;373(5):415-27.
http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1500245
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26172429?tool=bestpractice.com
[13]Alimi Y, Lim WS, Lansbury L, et al. Systematic review of respiratory viral pathogens identified in adults with community-acquired pneumonia in Europe. J Clin Virol. 2017 Oct;95:26-35.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28837859?tool=bestpractice.com
在欧洲和美国,肺炎链球菌引起的 CAP 大约占总病例数的 30% 至 35%。[9]Cillóniz C, Ewig S, Polverino E, et al. Microbial aetiology of community-acquired pneumonia and its relation to severity. Thorax. 2011 Apr;66(4):340-6.
http://thorax.bmj.com/content/66/4/340.long
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21257985?tool=bestpractice.com
[14]Almirall J, Bolíbar I, Vidal J, et al. Epidemiology of community-acquired pneumonia in adults: a population-based study. Eur Respir J. 2000 Apr;15(4):757-63.
http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/15/4/757.long
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10780770?tool=bestpractice.com
在欧洲,肺炎球菌性 CAP 的总发病率为 68-7000/100,000。[15]Torres A, Cillóniz C, Blasi F, et al. Burden of pneumococcal community-acquired pneumonia in adults across Europe: a literature review. Respir Med. 2018 Apr;137:6-13.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29605214?tool=bestpractice.com
其他细菌性病原体包括流感嗜血杆菌、金黄色葡萄球菌和卡他莫拉菌。
非典型细菌也是常见病因,不过其发生频率因年度和流行情况而异。[12]Almirall J, Boixeda R, Bolíbar I, et al. Differences in the etiology of community-acquired pneumonia according to site of care: a population-based study. Respir Med. 2007 Oct;101(10):2168-75.
http://www.resmedjournal.com/article/S0954-6111%2807%2900194-1/fulltext
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17629472?tool=bestpractice.com
[16]Marchello C, Dale AP, Thai TN, et al. Prevalence of atypical pathogens in patients with cough and community-acquired pneumonia: a meta-analysis. Ann Fam Med. 2016 Nov;14(6):552-66.
http://www.annfammed.org/content/14/6/552.long
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28376442?tool=bestpractice.com
就全球范围而言,在 CAP 患者中,非典型病原体的感染率为 22%,具体情况因地区而异。[17]Arnold FW, Summersgill JT, Ramirez JA. Role of atypical pathogens in the etiology of community-acquired pneumonia. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2016 Dec;37(6):819-28.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27960206?tool=bestpractice.com
最常报告的非典型细菌是肺炎支原体、肺炎衣原体以及嗜肺军团菌。门诊治疗和住院治疗的 CAP 患者中,因肺炎支原体致病的比例分别高达 37% 和 10%。[9]Cillóniz C, Ewig S, Polverino E, et al. Microbial aetiology of community-acquired pneumonia and its relation to severity. Thorax. 2011 Apr;66(4):340-6.
http://thorax.bmj.com/content/66/4/340.long
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21257985?tool=bestpractice.com
[18]Metlay JP, Waterer GW, Long AC, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of adults with community-acquired pneumonia. An official clinical practice guideline of the American Thoracic Society and Infectious Diseases Society of America. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2019 Oct 1;200(7):e45-e67.
https://www.atsjournals.org/doi/full/10.1164/rccm.201908-1581ST
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31573350?tool=bestpractice.com
在免疫功能正常的患者中,肺炎衣原体引起的 CAP 病例占总病例的 5% 至 15%,[19]Torres A, Barberán J, Falguera M, et al. Multidisciplinary guidelines for the management of community-acquired pneumonia [in Spanish]. Med Clin (Barc). 2013 Mar 2;140(5):223.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23276610?tool=bestpractice.com
嗜肺军团菌(特别是血清 1 型)引起的 CAP 病例占总病例的 2% 至 6%。[20]Mandell LA, Marrie TJ, Grossman RF, et al; The Canadian Community-Acquired Pneumonia Working Group. Canadian guidelines for the initial management of community-acquired pneumonia: an evidence-based update by the Canadian Infectious Diseases Society and the Canadian Thoracic Society. Clin Infect Dis. 2000 Aug;31(2):383-421.
http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/31/2/383.full
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10987698?tool=bestpractice.com
一项系统评价发现,1% 的患者的致病病原体为鹦鹉热衣原体。[21]Hogerwerf L, DE Gier B, Baan B, et al. Chlamydia psittaci (psittacosis) as a cause of community-acquired pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Epidemiol Infect. 2017 Nov;145(15):3096-105.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28946931?tool=bestpractice.com
然而,荷兰的一项研究通过痰液聚合酶链反应(polymerase chain reaction,PCR,若条件允许)发现,有 4.8% 的 CAP 病例是由鹦鹉热衣原体所致。[22]Spoorenberg SM, Bos WJ, van Hannen EJ, et al. Chlamydia psittaci: a relevant cause of community-acquired pneumonia in two Dutch hospitals. Neth J Med. 2016 Feb;74(2):75-81.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26951352?tool=bestpractice.com
约有 6% 的病例由 PES 病原菌(铜绿假单胞菌、超广谱 β-内酰胺酶肠杆菌、耐甲氧西林耐药金黄色葡萄球菌 [methicillin-resistant S aureus,MRSA])引起。在这些病原菌中,最常报告的是铜绿假单胞菌和 MRSA。[23]Cillóniz C, Dominedò C, Nicolini A, et al. PES pathogens in severe community-acquired pneumonia. Microorganisms. 2019 Feb 12;7(2):E49.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6406253
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30759805?tool=bestpractice.com
[24]Prina E, Ranzani OT, Polverino E, et al. Risk factors associated with potentially antibiotic-resistant pathogens in community-acquired pneumonia. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 2015 Feb;12(2):153-60.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25521229?tool=bestpractice.com
据报道,在接受住院治疗的免疫功能正常的成人 CAP 患者中,约有 10% 至 30% 的患者报告有呼吸道病毒感染。[9]Cillóniz C, Ewig S, Polverino E, et al. Microbial aetiology of community-acquired pneumonia and its relation to severity. Thorax. 2011 Apr;66(4):340-6.
http://thorax.bmj.com/content/66/4/340.long
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21257985?tool=bestpractice.com
[25]Jokinen C, Heiskanen L, Juvonen H, et al. Microbial etiology of community-acquired pneumonia in the adult population of 4 municipalities in eastern Finland. Clin Infect Dis. 2001 Apr 15;32(8):1141-54.
http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/32/8/1141.long
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11283803?tool=bestpractice.com
[26]Jennings LC, Anderson TP, Beynon KA, et al. Incidence and characteristics of viral community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Thorax. 2008 Jan;63(1):42-8.
http://thorax.bmj.com/content/63/1/42.long
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17573440?tool=bestpractice.com
[27]Burk M, El-Kersh K, Saad M, et al. Viral infection in community-acquired pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Respir Rev. 2016 Jun;25(140):178-88.
http://err.ersjournals.com/content/25/140/178.long
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27246595?tool=bestpractice.com
甲/乙型流感病毒、呼吸道合胞病毒、腺病毒、鼻病毒和副流感病毒是免疫功能正常成人罹患 CAP 的最常见病毒性原因。据报告,病毒性脓毒症在急诊科 CAP 确诊患者中的发生率为 3%,在收住重症监护病房的 CAP 确诊患者中的发生率为 19%,而在被确诊为病毒性 CAP 患者中的发生率为 61%。男性和老年患者(年龄≥65 岁)患病毒性脓毒症的风险增加。[28]Cillóniz C, Dominedò C, Magdaleno D, et al. Pure viral sepsis secondary to community-acquired pneumonia in adults: risk and prognostic factors. J Infect Dis. 2019 Aug 30;220(7):1166-71.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31115456?tool=bestpractice.com
据报道,引起 CAP 的新型病原体包括偏肺病毒和冠状病毒。[29]Wunderink RG, Waterer G. Advances in the causes and management of community acquired pneumonia in adults. BMJ. 2017 Jul 10;358:j2471.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28694251?tool=bestpractice.com
由于 PCR 的使用,对病毒性病因的检出也逐渐增加。
CAP 中多重微生物病因的发生比例介于 5.7~13% ,取决于不同的人群和所用的微生物诊断性检查。[9]Cillóniz C, Ewig S, Polverino E, et al. Microbial aetiology of community-acquired pneumonia and its relation to severity. Thorax. 2011 Apr;66(4):340-6.
http://thorax.bmj.com/content/66/4/340.long
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21257985?tool=bestpractice.com
[26]Jennings LC, Anderson TP, Beynon KA, et al. Incidence and characteristics of viral community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Thorax. 2008 Jan;63(1):42-8.
http://thorax.bmj.com/content/63/1/42.long
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17573440?tool=bestpractice.com
[30]Johansson N, Kalin M, Tiveljung-Lindell A, et al. Etiology of community-acquired pneumonia: increased microbiological yield with new diagnostic methods. Clin Infect Dis. 2010 Jan 15;50(2):202-9.
http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/50/2/202.long
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20014950?tool=bestpractice.com