病因学
发达国家COPD的最常见原因是烟草暴露。数据显示,随着时间的推移,50% 的慢性吸烟者发展为COPD。[6]Mannino DM, Doherty DE, Sonia Buist A. Global Initiative on Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD) classification of lung disease and mortality: findings from the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) study. Respir Med. 2006 Jan;100(1):115-22. https://www.resmedjournal.com/article/S0954-6111(05)00141-1/fulltext http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15893923?tool=bestpractice.com [27]Lundback B, Lindberg A, Lindstrom M, et al. Not 15 but 50% of smokers develop COPD? Report from the Obstructive Lung Disease in Northern Sweden Studies. Respir Med. 2003 Feb;97(2):115-22. https://www.resmedjournal.com/article/S0954-6111(03)91446-6/pdf http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12587960?tool=bestpractice.com COPD 的发病是一个复杂的过程,目前还未得到完全的研究。炎症、氧化剂-抗氧化剂失衡、蛋白酶-抗蛋白酶失衡和一些其他过程(包括反复感染、免疫衰老、自身免疫、组织愈合改变和其他机制)都在 COPD 发病机制中发挥作用。虽然吸烟是一个公认的 COPD 病因,但患 COPD 的风险可能还取决于性别、遗传和社会经济因素,以及粉尘、化学物或污染物暴露和幼儿期严重呼吸系统感染等情况。记录最多的遗传风险因素是 α-1 抗胰蛋白酶的严重遗传性缺乏,α-1 抗胰蛋白酶是丝氨酸蛋白酶的主要循环抑制剂。[1]Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease. Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: 2022 report. 2022 [internet publication]. https://goldcopd.org/2022-gold-reports
COPD急性加重间断发生,贯穿于患者整个病程中。急性加重的严重程度多变,主要是由感染(病毒和细菌)和空气污染所诱发。[28]Sapey E, Stockley RA. COPD exacerbations. 2: aetiology. Thorax. 2006 Mar;61(3):250-8. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2080749 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16517585?tool=bestpractice.com 大约 1/3 的COPD急性加重患者不能识别出明确的原因。在这些病例中,应该仔细寻找其他可以导致呼吸失代偿的原因(如充血性心力衰竭或肺栓塞)。[5]Mannino DM, Buist AS. Global burden of COPD: risk factors, prevalence, and future trends. Lancet. 2007 Sep 1;370(9589):765-73. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17765526?tool=bestpractice.com [6]Mannino DM, Doherty DE, Sonia Buist A. Global Initiative on Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD) classification of lung disease and mortality: findings from the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) study. Respir Med. 2006 Jan;100(1):115-22. https://www.resmedjournal.com/article/S0954-6111(05)00141-1/fulltext http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15893923?tool=bestpractice.com
在发作期间,可能发现 FEV1、用力肺活量和呼气流量峰值下降,至少部分是气道炎症所致。[11]Seemungal TA, Donaldson GC, Bhowmik A, et al. Time course and recovery of exacerbations in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000 May;161(5):1608-13. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10806163?tool=bestpractice.com [28]Sapey E, Stockley RA. COPD exacerbations. 2: aetiology. Thorax. 2006 Mar;61(3):250-8. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2080749 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16517585?tool=bestpractice.com [29]Hogg JC, Chu F, Utokaparch S, et al. The nature of small-airway obstruction in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N Engl J Med. 2004 Jun 24;350(26):2645-53. https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMoa032158 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15215480?tool=bestpractice.com 但是,急性加重是通过识别出典型的体征和症状来诊断的,而不是依靠肺功能。[30]Anzueto A. Primary care management of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease to reduce exacerbations and their consequences. Am J Med Sci. 2010 Oct;340(4):309-18. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20625276?tool=bestpractice.com
50%-70% 的加重被认为是由细菌感染所诱发的。最常见的细菌病原体包括流感嗜血杆菌、肺炎链球菌和卡他莫拉菌。[28]Sapey E, Stockley RA. COPD exacerbations. 2: aetiology. Thorax. 2006 Mar;61(3):250-8. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2080749 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16517585?tool=bestpractice.com [31]Woodhead M, Blasi F, Ewig S, et al. Guidelines for the management of adult lower respiratory tract infections - full version. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2011 Nov;17 Suppl 6:E1-59. https://www.clinicalmicrobiologyandinfection.com/article/S1198-743X(14)61404-X/fulltext http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21951385?tool=bestpractice.com 目前认为非典型致病菌(例如支原体和肺炎衣原体)也可诱发急性加重,诸如鼻病毒、流感病毒、呼吸道合胞病毒、副流感病毒和人偏肺病毒等呼吸道病毒同样也可诱发。[32]Lieberman D, Lieberman D, Ben-Yaakov M, et al. Infectious etiologies in acute exacerbation of COPD. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2001 Jul;40(3):95-102. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11502375?tool=bestpractice.com [33]Greenberg SB, Allen M, Wilson J, et al. Respiratory viral infections in adults with and without chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000 Jul;162(1):167-73. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10903237?tool=bestpractice.com [34]Beckham JD, Cadena A, Lin J, et al. Respiratory viral infections in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. J Infect. 2005 May;50(4):322-30. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15845430?tool=bestpractice.com [35]Martinello RA, Esper F, Weibel C, et al. Human metapneumovirus and exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. J Infect. 2006 Oct;53(4):248-54. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16412516?tool=bestpractice.com 基础肺功能受损的严重程度影响了最常见的病原体谱。[31]Woodhead M, Blasi F, Ewig S, et al. Guidelines for the management of adult lower respiratory tract infections - full version. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2011 Nov;17 Suppl 6:E1-59. https://www.clinicalmicrobiologyandinfection.com/article/S1198-743X(14)61404-X/fulltext http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21951385?tool=bestpractice.com
急性加重也可以由环境污染物诱发,如烟草颗粒物、二氧化硫、二氧化氮和臭氧。[36]Dennis RJ, Maldonado D, Norman S, et al. Woodsmoke exposure and risk for obstructive airways disease among women. Chest. 1996 Jan;109(1):115-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8549171?tool=bestpractice.com [37]Sunyer J, Saez M, Murillo C, et al. Air pollution and emergency room admissions for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a 5-year study. Am J Epidemiol. 1993 Apr 1;137(7):701-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8484361?tool=bestpractice.com
病理生理学
吸烟或其他显著的烟雾暴露,可以见于大多数COPD患者。烟草中的成分导致肺上皮细胞之间的紧密连接的完整性受损,[38]Jones JG, Minty BD, Lawler P, et al. Increased alveolar epithelial permeability in cigarette smokers. Lancet. 1980 Jan 12;1(8159):66-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6101416?tool=bestpractice.com 刺激炎症反应,并且已经表明可降低呼吸道黏液纤毛清除能力,增加病原微生物对正常无菌下呼吸道的穿透能力。[39]Sethi S, Murphy TF. Bacterial infection in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in 2000: a state-of-the-art review. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2001 Apr;14(2):336-63. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC88978 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11292642?tool=bestpractice.com [40]Barnes PJ. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N Engl J Med. 2000 Jul 27;343(4):269-80. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10911010?tool=bestpractice.com [41]Stockley RA. Progression of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: impact of inflammation, comorbidities and therapeutic intervention. Curr Med Res Opin. 2009 May;25(5):1235-45. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19335322?tool=bestpractice.com 微生物的存在导致抗原形成,刺激先天和适应性免疫反应。[42]Sethi S, Murphy TF. Infection in the pathogenesis and course of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N Engl J Med. 2008 Nov 27;359(22):2355-65. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19038881?tool=bestpractice.com 随着时间推移,吸烟的慢性刺激和炎症反应导致肺气肿、气道黏液腺增生、小气道纤维化和肺弹性回缩力的下降。[43]Barnes PJ. Mechanisms in COPD: differences from asthma. Chest. 2000 Feb;117(2 Suppl):10S-4S. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10673467?tool=bestpractice.com 肺气肿导致的弹性回缩力下降和/或炎症、水肿和黏液分泌过多导致的小气道阻塞均会引起 FEV1 和 FEV1/FVC 下降。[44]Hogg JC. Pathophysiology of airflow limitation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Lancet. 2004 Aug 21-27;364(9435):709-21. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15325838?tool=bestpractice.com 气流受限引起的过度充气是呼吸困难的主要原因。[45]Lougheed DM, Webb KA, O'Donnell DE. Breathlessness during induced lung hyperinflation in asthma: the role of the inspiratory threshold load. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1995 Sep;152(3):911-20. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7663804?tool=bestpractice.com 和哮喘不同,COPD的气流受限不能通过药物治疗完全逆转。[46]Pauwels RA, Buist AS, Calverley PM, et al. Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. NHLBI/WHO Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD) Workshop summary. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001 Apr;163(5):1256-76. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11316667?tool=bestpractice.com 此外,尽管哮喘和COPD的发病机制都是炎症,但特异炎症过程在二者是不同的。[12]Seemungal TA, Donaldson GC, Paul EA, et al. Effect of exacerbation on quality of life in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998 May;157(5 Pt 1):1418-22. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9603117?tool=bestpractice.com 但是在一定数量的COPD患者,支气管舒张剂治疗后气流阻塞部分是可逆的。[47]Tashkin DP, Celli B, Decramer M, et al. Bronchodilator responsiveness in patients with COPD. Eur Respir J. 2008 Apr;31(4):742-50. https://erj.ersjournals.com/content/31/4/742.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18256071?tool=bestpractice.com 实际上,吸入支气管舒张剂(β2-受体激动剂和抗胆碱能药物)是所有COPD患者的主要治疗药物之一,因为除了支气管舒张作用之外,它们还有降低动态过度充气的作用。[48]Belman MJ, Botnick WC, Shin JW. Inhaled bronchodilators reduce dynamic hyperinflation during exercise in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1996 Mar;153(3):967-75. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8630581?tool=bestpractice.com [49]Celli B, ZuWallack R, Wang S, et al. Improvement in resting inspiratory capacity and hyperinflation with tiotropium in COPD patients with increased static lung volumes. Chest. 2003 Nov;124(5):1743-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14605043?tool=bestpractice.com
COPD 急性加重可以被定义为“呼吸道症状急性恶化(例如呼吸困难、咳嗽、有痰),导致需要进行额外的治疗”。[1]Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease. Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: 2022 report. 2022 [internet publication]. https://goldcopd.org/2022-gold-reports 这种病情恶化可能是因感染、空气污染和/或其他因素诱发的气道炎症细胞和蛋白质增加所致。[29]Hogg JC, Chu F, Utokaparch S, et al. The nature of small-airway obstruction in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N Engl J Med. 2004 Jun 24;350(26):2645-53. https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMoa032158 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15215480?tool=bestpractice.com [50]Papi A, Bellettato CM, Braccioni F, et al. Infections and airway inflammation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease severe exacerbations. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2006 May 15;173(10):1114-21. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16484677?tool=bestpractice.com [51]Wedzicha JA, Seemungal TA. COPD exacerbations: defining their cause and prevention. Lancet. 2007 Sep 1;370(9589):786-96. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17765528?tool=bestpractice.com [52]Hurst JR, Wedzicha JA. The biology of a chronic obstructive pulmonary disease exacerbation. Clin Chest Med. 2007 Sep;28(3):525-36. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17720041?tool=bestpractice.com 慢性炎症反应的急性加重和/或并发的支气管痉挛导致呼气气流受限加重。[14]O'Donnell DE, Parker CM. COPD exacerbations. 3: Pathophysiology. Thorax. 2006 Apr;61(4):354-61. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2104611 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16565268?tool=bestpractice.com 呼气气流受限的加重导致呼吸阻力增加,通气/血流比例失衡增加,气体交换障碍。它还导致过度充气增加,从而进一步加重肺力学的恶化,导致功能受损和呼吸肌疲劳。[14]O'Donnell DE, Parker CM. COPD exacerbations. 3: Pathophysiology. Thorax. 2006 Apr;61(4):354-61. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2104611 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16565268?tool=bestpractice.com 由于COPD急性加重患者不易获得组织标本,同时诱因多变,因此对急性加重时的炎症反应并不完全了解。
急性加重对慢阻肺患者活动水平、功能状态和生活质量产生重要影响。[1]Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease. Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: 2022 report. 2022 [internet publication]. https://goldcopd.org/2022-gold-reports [12]Seemungal TA, Donaldson GC, Paul EA, et al. Effect of exacerbation on quality of life in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998 May;157(5 Pt 1):1418-22. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9603117?tool=bestpractice.com [53]Giacomini M, DeJean D, Simeonov D, et al. Experiences of living and dying with COPD: a systematic review and synthesis of the qualitative empirical literature. Ont Health Technol Assess Ser. 2012;12(13):1-47. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3384365 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23074423?tool=bestpractice.com 此外,急性加重的恢复可能需要很长时间,部分患者再也不能恢复到之前的肺功能水平和/或功能状态。[11]Seemungal TA, Donaldson GC, Bhowmik A, et al. Time course and recovery of exacerbations in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000 May;161(5):1608-13. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10806163?tool=bestpractice.com 有证据表明,随着 COPD 的进展,加重不仅倾向于越来越频繁和越来越严重,[54]Burge S, Wedzicha JA. COPD exacerbations: definitions and classifications. Eur Respir J Suppl. 2003 Jun;41:46s-53s. https://erj.ersjournals.com/content/21/41_suppl/46s.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12795331?tool=bestpractice.com [55]Hurst JR, Vestbo J, Anzueto A, et al. Susceptibility to exacerbation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N Engl J Med. 2010 Sep 16;363(12):1128-38. https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMoa0909883 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20843247?tool=bestpractice.com 而且本身还可能加速 COPD 患者的肺功能下降。[22]Donaldson GC, Seemungal TA, Bhowmik A, et al. Relationship between exacerbation frequency and lung function decline in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax. 2002 Oct;57(10):847-52. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1746193 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12324669?tool=bestpractice.com 实际上,部分患者是COPD急性加重的高危人群(如,易感性增加的表型),与疾病严重程度无关。[55]Hurst JR, Vestbo J, Anzueto A, et al. Susceptibility to exacerbation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N Engl J Med. 2010 Sep 16;363(12):1128-38. https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMoa0909883 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20843247?tool=bestpractice.com 目前推荐的COPD患者的评估包括气流阻塞严重程度的判断、症状评估和急性加重的风险评估。有重度或极重度气流阻塞,或前一年有过 2 次或以上的加重,或前一年因加重而住院治疗的患者,被认为日后加重风险高。[1]Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease. Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: 2022 report. 2022 [internet publication]. https://goldcopd.org/2022-gold-reports 其他一些因素也与COPD急性加重和/或住院相关。[56]Niewoehner DE, Lokhnygina Y, Rice K, et al. Risk indexes for exacerbations and hospitalizations due to COPD. Chest. 2007 Jan;131(1):20-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17218552?tool=bestpractice.com [57]Foreman MG, DeMeo DL, Hersh CP, et al. Clinical determinants of exacerbations in severe, early-onset COPD. Eur Respir J. 2007 Dec;30(6):1124-30. https://erj.ersjournals.com/content/30/6/1124.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17715170?tool=bestpractice.com COPD急性加重,特别是那些需要住院的患者,与病死率增加以及医疗资源花费增加相关。[1]Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease. Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: 2022 report. 2022 [internet publication]. https://goldcopd.org/2022-gold-reports
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