肾前性氮质血症由肾脏灌注不足引起,这种变化是相应的肾脏生理学反应。在低灌注压发生时,肾脏的主要反应是增强钠和水的重吸收。颈动脉和主动脉弓的压力感受器通过刺激交感神经对低血压做出反应。这种反应与肾小球入球小动脉的舒张和出球小动脉的收缩共同作用,以使肾小球滤过率维持在一个相对窄的范围内。灌注下降促使肾素-血管紧张素-醛固酮系统激活。血管紧张素 II(一种强有力的血管收缩因子)刺激醛固酮释放,促进钠离子和水在集合管重吸收。低血容量还能够刺激下丘脑,促进抗利尿激素释放,从而增加肾小管再吸收水的能力,使尿液浓缩。
急性肾小管坏死 (Acute tubular necrosis, ATN) 由长时间缺血或严重缺血引起,是急性肾损伤最常见的形式,前驱因素是肾灌注降低和组织低氧血症,会直接导致微血管内皮损伤和肾小管缺血,通常近曲小管起始部位和外髓段最严重。[19]Myers BD, Moran SM. Hemodynamically mediated acute renal failure. N Engl J Med. 1986 Jan 9;314(2):97-105.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3510383?tool=bestpractice.com
[20]Brezis M, Rosen S, Silva P, et al. Renal ischemia: a new perspective. Kidney Int. 1984 Oct;26(4):375-83.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6396435?tool=bestpractice.com
低氧血症会导致活性氧增加、可用的腺苷三磷酸减少以及细胞功能障碍和坏死。[21]Kaushal GP, Basnakian AG, Shah SV. Apoptotic pathways in ischemic acute renal failure. Kidney Int. 2004 Aug;66(2):500-6.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15253697?tool=bestpractice.com
此外,研究显示补体系统激活、中性粒细胞直接活化、膜攻击复合物激活、细胞因子、趋化因子和血管活性物质参与了其病理进展。[22]Zhou W, Farrar CA, Abe K, et al. Predominant role for C5b-9 in renal ischemia/reperfusion injury. J Clin Invest. 2000 May;105(10):1363-71.
https://www.jci.org/articles/view/8621
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10811844?tool=bestpractice.com
[23]Thurman J, Lucia MS, Ljubanovic D, et al. Acute tubular necrosis is characterized by activation of the alternative pathway of complement. Kidney Int. 2005 Feb;67(2):524-30.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15673300?tool=bestpractice.com
[24]Bonventre JV, Zuk A. Ischemic acute renal failure: an inflammatory disease? Kidney Int. 2004 Aug;66(2):480-5.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15253693?tool=bestpractice.com
[25]Lien YH, Yong KC, Cho C, et al. S1P(1) selective agonist, SEW2871, ameliorates ischemic-reperfusion injury in acute renal failure. Kidney Int. 2006 May;69(9):1601-8.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16572108?tool=bestpractice.com
[26]Boffa JJ, Arendshorst WJ, et al. Maintenance of renal vascular reactivity contributes to acute renal failure during endotoxemic shock. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2005 Jan;16(1):117-24.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15563566?tool=bestpractice.com
[27]Boffa JJ, Just A, Coffman TM, et al. Thromboxane receptor mediates renal vasoconstriction and contributes to acute renal failure in endotoxemic mice. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2004 Sep;15(9):2358-65.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15339984?tool=bestpractice.com
[28]Khan RZ, Badr KF. Endotoxin and renal function: perspectives to the understanding of septic acute renal failure and toxic shock. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 1999 Apr;14(4):814-8.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10328448?tool=bestpractice.com
[29]Schrier RW, Wang W. Acute renal failure and sepsis. N Engl J Med. 2004 Jul 8;351(2):159-69.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15247356?tool=bestpractice.com
[30]Badr KF, Kelley VE, Rennke HG, et al. Roles for thromboxane A2 and leukotrienes in endotoxin-induced acute renal failure. Kidney Int. 1986 Oct;30(4):474-80.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3537451?tool=bestpractice.com
急性肾小管坏死也可能由暴露于药物、内毒素或放射性对比剂导致。动物模型表明,对比剂直接的细胞毒性以及肾血管收缩导致髓质血流量减少、血液粘度增加和低氧血症。[31]Weisberg LS, Kurnik PB, Kurnik BR, et al. Radiocontrast induced nephropathy in humans. Role of renal vasoconstriction. Kidney Int. 1992 May;41(5):1408-15.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1614056?tool=bestpractice.com
[32]Russo D, Minutolo R, Cianciaruso B, et al. Early effects of contrast media on renal hemodynamics and tubular function in chronic renal failure. J Am Soc Nephrol. 1995 Nov;6(5):1451-8.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8589322?tool=bestpractice.com
[33]Persson P, Hansell P, Liss P. Pathophysiology of contrast medium-induced nephropathy. Kidney Int. 2005 Jul;68(1):14-22.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15954892?tool=bestpractice.com
[34]Cantley LG, Spokes K, Clark B, et al. Role of endothelin and prostaglandins in radiocontrast-induced renal artery constriction. Kidney Int. 1993 Dec;44(6):1217-23.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8301922?tool=bestpractice.com
[35]Heyman S, Rosenberger C, Rosen S, et al. Regional alterations in renal haemodynamics and oxygenation: a role in contrast medium-induced nephropathy. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2005 Feb;20 Suppl 1:i6-11.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15705946?tool=bestpractice.com
[36]Pflueger A, Larson TS, Nath KA, et al. Role of adenosine in contrast media-induced acute renal failure in diabetes mellitus. Mayo Clin Proc. 2000 Dec;75(12):1275-83.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11126837?tool=bestpractice.com
然而,由于人群研究未重现出相应风险,ATN 与暴露于放射性造影剂的关联性仍有争议。[37]Wilhelm-Leen E, Montez-Rath ME, Chertow G. Estimating the risk of radiocontrast-associated nephropathy. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2017 Feb;28(2):653-9.
https://jasn.asnjournals.org/content/28/2/653.long
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27688297?tool=bestpractice.com
[38]Brinjikji W, Demchuk AM, Murad MH, et al. Neurons over nephrons: systematic review and meta-analysis of contrast-induced nephropathy in patients with acute stroke. Stroke. 2017 Jul;48(7):1862-8.
https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/STROKEAHA.117.016771
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28583996?tool=bestpractice.com
[39]Ehrmann S, Quartin A, Hobbs BP, et al. Contrast-associated acute kidney injury in the critically ill: systematic review and Bayesian meta-analysis. Intensive Care Med. 2017 Jun;43(6):785-94.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28197679?tool=bestpractice.com
梗阻性肾脏损伤主要是由于肾小管内压力增加引起肾小管缺血和萎缩而导致的。证据还显示,单核细胞和巨噬细胞的聚集可造成肾脏损伤。当梗阻变成慢性时,细胞因子、自由基、蛋白酶和肿瘤坏死因子-β 的释放会引起不可逆的肾小管损伤和纤维化。[40]Schreiner GF, Kohan DE. Regulation of renal transport processes and hemodynamics by macrophages and lymphocytes. Am J Kidney Dis. 1990 Apr;258(4 Pt 2):F761-7.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2184672?tool=bestpractice.com
[41]Klahr S. New insights into the consequences and mechanisms of renal impairment in obstructive nephropathy. Am J Kidney Dis. 1991 Dec;18(6):689-99.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1962655?tool=bestpractice.com
[42]Ophascharoensuk V, Giachelli CM, Gordon K, et al. Obstructive uropathy in the mouse: Role of osteopontin in interstitial fibrosis and apoptosis. Kidney Int. 1999 Aug;56(2):571-80.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10432396?tool=bestpractice.com
[43]Moon JA, Kim HT, Cho IS, et al. IN-1130, a novel transforming growth factor-beta type I receptor kinase (ALK5) inhibitor, suppresses renal fibrosis in obstructive nephropathy. Kidney Int. 2006 Oct;70(7):1234-43.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16929250?tool=bestpractice.com
有初步证据表明,AKI 可能存在遗传倾向,尤其与载脂蛋白E (apolipoprotein E, Apo-E) 基因相关。[44]Lu JC, Coca SG, Patel UD, et al. Searching for genes that matter in acute kidney injury: a systematic review. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2009 Jun;4(6):1020-31.
https://cjasn.asnjournals.org/content/4/6/1020.long
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19443624?tool=bestpractice.com
全基因组研究已发现其他保护性候选基因,但需要开展更多工作来验证这些研究结果。[45]Zhao B. Genome-wide association study to identify single nucleotide polymorphisms conferring risk for acute kidney injury. Abstract TH-OR028. Paper presented at: Kidney Week 2014. 11-16 Nov 2014. Philadelphia, PA. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2014;25(suppl):7A.
https://www.asn-online.org/education/kidneyweek/archives