All patients should be well educated about the disease course and symptoms of exacerbation or decompensation. Their expectation of the disease, treatment, and prognosis should be realistic. It is important to remember that no medicine has been shown to modify the long-term decline in lung function, and the primary goal of pharmacotherapy is to control symptoms and prevent complications.
One Cochrane review found that self-management interventions that include an action plan for acute exacerbations of COPD are associated with improvements in health-related quality of life and fewer admissions to hospital for respiratory problems. An exploratory analysis found a small, but significantly higher, respiratory-related mortality rate for self-management compared to usual care, although no excess risk of all-cause mortality was seen.[108]Lenferink A, Brusse-Keizer M, van der Valk PD, et al. Self-management interventions including action plans for exacerbations versus usual care in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017 Aug 4;(8):CD011682.
https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD011682.pub2/full
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28777450?tool=bestpractice.com
Self-management plans should include personalised advice on: breathlessness and stress management techniques, energy conservation, avoiding aggravating factors, how to monitor symptoms, how to manage worsening symptoms, and contact information to use in the event of an exacerbation.[1]Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD). Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. 2021 [internet publication].
https://goldcopd.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/GOLD-REPORT-2021-v1.1-25Nov20_WMV.pdf
Helping patients to self-manage should ideally address psychosocial concerns and patients’ personal beliefs about COPD and its management. Many patients report losses and limitations on their lifestyle and social interaction after a diagnosis of COPD. Symptoms of anxiety, depression, and frustration are common.[110]Russell S, Ogunbayo OJ, Newham JJ, et al. Qualitative systematic review of barriers and facilitators to self-management of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: views of patients and healthcare professionals. NPJ Prim Care Respir Med. 2018 Jan 17;28(1):2.
https://www.doi.org/10.1038/s41533-017-0069-z
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29343739?tool=bestpractice.com
A systematic review found a small beneficial effect of cognitive behavioural therapy-based psychological treatment and symptoms of depression, compared with education or no intervention, although the evidence was limited by heterogeneity between trials and inability to blind participants and researchers to the intervention.[111]Pollok J, van Agteren JE, Esterman AJ, et al. Psychological therapies for the treatment of depression in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019 Mar 6;3:CD012347.
https://www.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD012347.pub2
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30838649?tool=bestpractice.com
One randomised controlled trial found that a telephone health coaching intervention to promote behaviour change in patients with mild COPD in primary care led to improvements in self-management activities, but did not improve health-related quality of life.[112]Jolly K, Sidhu MS, Hewitt CA, et al. Self management of patients with mild COPD in primary care: randomised controlled trial. BMJ. 2018 Jun 13;361:k2241.
https://www.bmj.com/content/361/bmj.k2241.long
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29899047?tool=bestpractice.com
A meta-analysis found that health coaching that included goal setting, motivational interviewing, and COPD-related health education significantly improved health-related quality of life and reduced hospital admissions for an exacerbation of COPD, but did not decrease all-cause hospital admissions.[113]Long H, Howells K, Peters S, et al. Does health coaching improve health-related quality of life and reduce hospital admissions in people with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Health Psychol. 2019 Sep;24(3):515-46.
https://www.doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12366
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31033121?tool=bestpractice.com
Patients should stay as healthy and active as possible. It is necessary to stop active or passive smoking and avoid environmental exposure to toxic fumes.
Regular medical follow-up is necessary to optimise the treatment. If there is any worsening of symptoms, immediate medical attention is required. Patients on continuous oxygen therapy may need increase in oxygen flow during air travel.
Physical activity is recommended for all patients with COPD and they should be encouraged to maintain it.[1]Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD). Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. 2021 [internet publication].
https://goldcopd.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/GOLD-REPORT-2021-v1.1-25Nov20_WMV.pdf
One systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials found that exercise training on its own can improve physical activity in COPD, and greater improvements can be made with the addition of physical activity counselling.[121]Lahham A, McDonald CF, Holland AE. Exercise training alone or with the addition of activity counseling improves physical activity levels in COPD: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis. 2016 Dec 8;11:3121-36.
https://www.dovepress.com/exercise-training-alone-or-with-the-addition-of-activity-counseling-im-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-COPD
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27994451?tool=bestpractice.com
Another systematic review and meta-analysis found that a combination of aerobic exercise and strength training was more effective than aerobic exercise alone in increasing leg muscle strength, but there was no difference between the groups in health-related quality of life, walking distance, or exercise capacity.[190]Iepsen UW, Jørgensen KJ, Ringbæk T, et al. A combination of resistance and endurance training increases leg muscle strength in COPD: An evidence-based recommendation based on systematic review with meta-analyses. Chron Respir Dis. 2015 May;12(2):132-45.
https://www.doi.org/10.1177/1479972315575318
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25767138?tool=bestpractice.com
A Cochrane review found limited evidence for improvement in physical activity with physical activity counselling, exercise training, and pharmacological management of COPD. The authors commented that assessment of quality had been limited by lack of methodological detail and the diverse range of interventions had primarily been assessed in single studies.[123]Burge AT, Cox NS, Abramson MJ, et al. Interventions for promoting physical activity in people with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020 Apr 16;4:CD012626.
https://www.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD012626.pub2
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32297320?tool=bestpractice.com
The optimal timing, components, duration, and models for improving physical activity remain unclear. Meta-analyses suggest that yoga and Qigong can improve exercise capacity and pulmonary function in patients with COPD.[124]Cramer H, Haller H, Klose P, et al. The risks and benefits of yoga for patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Rehabil. 2019 Dec;33(12):1847-62.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31353959?tool=bestpractice.com
[125]Tong H, Liu Y, Zhu Y, et al. The therapeutic effects of qigong in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in the stable stage: a meta-analysis. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2019 Sep 4;19(1):239.
https://www.doi.org/10.1186/s12906-019-2639-9
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31484521?tool=bestpractice.com
Patients who use inhaled therapies should receive training on inhaler device technique. The majority of patients make at least one error in using their inhaler and incorrect inhaler use is associated with worse disease control.[114]Cho-Reyes S, Celli BR, Dembek C, et al. Inhalation technique errors with metered-dose inhalers among patients with obstructive lung diseases: a systematic review and meta-analysis of US Studies. Chronic Obstr Pulm Dis. 2019 Jul 24;6(3):267-80.
https://www.doi.org/10.15326/jcopdf.6.3.2018.0168
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31342732?tool=bestpractice.com
[115]Melani AS, Bonavia M, Cilenti V, et al. Inhaler mishandling remains common in real life and is associated with reduced disease control. Respir Med. 2011 Jun;105(6):930-8.
https://www.doi.org/10.1016/j.rmed.2011.01.005
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21367593?tool=bestpractice.com
Poor technique is more likely when patients are using multiple devices or have never received inhaler technique training.[116]Rootmensen GN, van Keimpema AR, Jansen HM, et al. Predictors of incorrect inhalation technique in patients with asthma or COPD: a study using a validated videotaped scoring method. J Aerosol Med Pulm Drug Deliv. 2010 Oct;23(5):323-8.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20804428?tool=bestpractice.com
Demonstration of inhaler use by a clinician, device selection, and reviewing technique at subsequent appointments can improve inhaler technique.[117]Price D, Keininger DL, Viswanad B, et al. Factors associated with appropriate inhaler use in patients with COPD - lessons from the REAL survey. Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis. 2018;13:695-702.
https://www.doi.org/10.2147/COPD.S149404
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29520137?tool=bestpractice.com
Demonstration using a placebo device may be most effective for teaching inhaler technique to adults aged ≥65 years.[118]Maricoto T, Monteiro L, Gama JMR, et al. Inhaler technique education and exacerbation risk in older adults with asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a meta-analysis. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2019 Jan;67(1):57-66.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30291745?tool=bestpractice.com
Patients should be asked to bring their inhalers to clinic to facilitate a review of inhaler use.[1]Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD). Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. 2021 [internet publication].
https://goldcopd.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/GOLD-REPORT-2021-v1.1-25Nov20_WMV.pdf
Pharmacist-led interventions and lay health coaching can improve inhaler technique and adherence in patients with COPD.[119]Jia X, Zhou S, Luo D, et al. Effect of pharmacist-led interventions on medication adherence and inhalation technique in adult patients with asthma or COPD: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Pharm Ther. 2020 Oct;45(5):904-17.
https://www.doi.org/10.1111/jcpt.13126
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32107837?tool=bestpractice.com
[120]Willard-Grace R, Chirinos C, Wolf J, et al. Lay health coaching to increase appropriate inhaler use in COPD: a randomized controlled trial. Ann Fam Med. 2020 Jan;18(1):5-14.
https://www.doi.org/10.1370/afm.2461
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31937527?tool=bestpractice.com