Approach
Management strategies depend on disease severity and focus on the following principles:
Infection prevention and control
Symptomatic treatment
Optimized supportive care
Management of skin lesions and wound care
Management of complications
Antiviral therapy.
Most patients can be treated with only supportive care and pain control that is implemented early in the disease course. However, this may not be adequate in some patients (e.g., patients with severe manifestations), and antiviral therapy may be required.[229]
There is a lack of high-quality evidence-based clinical management guidelines to guide clinical decision-making. Recommendations across guidelines vary, and there are limited recommendations for different risk groups and complications.[267] The recommendations in this section are mainly based on guidelines from the World Health Organization (WHO) and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and apply to patients with suspected or confirmed infection.[1][229]
Consider consultation with specialists in infectious diseases, dermatology, wound care, gastroenterology, neurology, ophthalmology, urology, critical care, and surgery as appropriate.
Infection prevention and control
Immediately contact your regional infectious disease unit if there is a clinical suspicion of infection.
This will trigger procedures to be activated for the safe transfer of the patient to a negative-pressure isolation facility and the notification of the public health team.
It is important to keep records of everyone who has been in close contact with the symptomatic patient (e.g., household contacts, paramedical and medical staff) and whether there are any potential animal carriers present.
All suspected or confirmed cases should be managed by experts, including public health officials, to prevent a potential emergency situation.
Follow your local infection prevention and control protocols.[1]
Standard, contact, and droplet precautions are recommended.
Airborne precautions are recommended when caring for suspected cases of mpox if chickenpox is suspected and until it is excluded. Respirators are recommended when caring for patients with confirmed mpox. Airborne precautions are also recommended if aerosol-generating procedures are performed, or clade I mpox is suspected or confirmed.
Treat all contaminated materials (e.g., linens, hospital gowns) and body fluids/solid waste of patients as potentially infectious.
Ideally all personnel likely to be in contact with the patient, bodily fluids, or fomites should have been vaccinated.
Postexposure vaccination may be recommended for unvaccinated contacts (see Prevention).
Healthcare workers who are pregnant or severely immunocompromised should not assess or care for patients with suspected or confirmed infection, where possible.[194]
Consult your local guidelines for detailed guidance on infection prevention and control measures. Recommendations may vary depending on the clade of the virus, with enhanced measures typically recommended for clade I mpox (e.g., airborne precautions).
Mild or uncomplicated disease
Most cases are mild and self-limited and patients recover generally within 2 to 4 weeks.[11]
Patients with suspected or confirmed infection and with mild or uncomplicated disease and who are not at high risk for severe or complicated disease may be isolated at home for the duration of the infectious period, provided that a home assessment determines that infection prevention and control conditions can be met in the home setting.[1]
Make decisions on a case-by-case basis. Base decisions on factors such as clinical severity, presence of complications, patient care needs, nutrition and hydration status, risk factors for severe disease, and access to medical care if condition deteriorates. Patients should be ambulatory, have good water and food intake, and be able to manage their self-care.
Consider admission to a health facility for patients who are at higher risk of severe disease (e.g., children, pregnant women, immunocompromised people, people with skin conditions) for closer monitoring. Also consider admitting patients who live with vulnerable populations where adequate infection prevention and control precautions cannot be met.
Follow-up should be conducted using telemedicine or telephone where possible.
It is important that the patient follows their regional home self-isolation guidelines. See Patient discussions.
In the UK, the UK Health Security Agency (UKHSA) recommends that suspected cases may self-isolate at home, based on an assessment by the clinician and following UKHSA guidance. However, discuss suspected cases who meet the high consequence infectious disease (HCID) case definition for clade I mpox with the local infection team and Imported Fever Service, as they will review the risk assessment and advise on the next steps for investigation and management.[268]
Assess all confirmed (or highly probable) cases for the need for admission based on either clinical or self-isolation requirements, and notify the local health protection team.
Admit patients who require hospital admission for clinical reasons, or those for whom self-isolation is not possible for social or medical reasons following clinical assessment.
NHS England recommends using a risk-stratified clinical approach to aid these decisions.[230]
All clade II (clade IIa and clade IIb) virus infections are not classified as an HCID in the UK. However, infections caused by the clade I virus are considered to be an HCID.[269] There is an increased risk of unrecognized HCID infections circulating on the background of clade II infections, following a cluster of sexually transmitted clade I infections first identified in 2023 (due to the newly identified clade Ib variant).[232]
Appropriate symptomatic treatment (with attention to pain control) and supportive care are recommended, and are usually sufficient for most patients.[1] Treatment should be started early in the disease course.
Pain
Pain management is an important part of treatment as pain is common and may be severe (e.g., rectal pain/proctitis, pain from lesions, pain from mucosal lesions not evident on physical exam, pain from lymphadenopathy, headache, muscle aches).
A multimodal approach including nonpharmacologic and pharmacologic therapies is recommended. Topical and/or systemic therapies may be required. Pain management strategies should be individualized, patient-centered, and tailored to the needs and context of an individual patient. Assess pain initially, and then regularly assess pain control and adjust pain management as required. Consultation with a pain specialist may be required for refractory cases. Prolonged follow-up is recommended to quickly diagnose prolonged nociceptive syndromes.[270][271]
Over-the-counter medications such as acetaminophen or ibuprofen are recommended for mild pain.[1][270]
Opioids such as tramadol or morphine are recommended for the short-term management of severe pain (e.g., severe rectal pain due to proctitis) after an assessment of the benefits and risks associated with opioid use (e.g., constipation, opioid use disorder with long-term use).[1][270]
Neuropathic pain agents (e.g., gabapentin) have been used for the short-term management of pain in some circumstances (e.g., severe proctitis) based on anecdotal reports.[270]
Salt water rinses, antiseptic mouthwashes (e.g., chlorhexidine), and local anesthetics (e.g., viscous lidocaine) are recommended for oral lesions.[1][270]
Warm sitz baths and/or topical lidocaine are recommended for genital or anorectal lesions. Topical corticosteroids may also be used for genital lesions; however, the risks and benefits of using these agents on active lesions must be considered.[1][270]
Early treatment with the antiviral tecovirimat (see Antiviral therapy below) may help with pain control in patients with severe proctitis, based on case reports.[272] However, there is no evidence to support this.
Despite pain management being a key consideration of management (over half of patients report some degree of pain), there is currently no high-quality evidence to guide clinical decision-making. There is a lack of randomized controlled trials and paucity of research in this area to help standardize a pain control plan.[273]
Proctitis
Pain may be severe and require appropriate pain management (see above).
Corticosteroid/local anesthetic suppositories or topical lidocaine gel may be used to relieve pain, spasm, and inflammation.[270]
Stool softeners may be considered to reduce pain associated with bowel movements (particularly if the patient is on opioid analgesia).[270]
Specialist referral is recommended for complications of proctitis (e.g., acute prostatitis, prostate abscess) as antibiotics may be required.
Fever
Acetaminophen is recommended for the management of fever.[1]
Pruritus
Nausea/vomiting
May be treated with antiemetics (e.g., ondansetron, promethazine).[1]
Diarrhea
Manage conservatively; antimotility agents are generally not recommended.[1]
Dyspepsia
May be treated with a proton-pump inhibitor (e.g., omeprazole).[1]
Nutrition
Nutrition and hydration status may be compromised due to oropharyngeal lesions or painful cervical lymphadenopathy.[1]
Advise patients to eat a soft diet and ensure adequate oral hydration. Intravenous hydration may be required in cases of severe odynophagia.[274]
Advise patients to maintain adequate hydration and nutrition. If this is not possible, evaluate the reason why (e.g., pain, nausea, weakness) and manage appropriately (e.g., analgesia, antiemetic).[1]
Provide vitamin A supplementation according to standard recommendations as it aids wound healing and eye health.[1]
Mental health care
Promptly identify and assess for anxiety and depressive symptoms in order to initiate basic psychosocial support strategies and first-line interventions for the management of new anxiety and depressive symptoms (e.g., self-management strategies, psychological or pharmacologic therapies).[1]
Psychosocial support strategies are recommended for the management of sleep issues (e.g., sleep hygiene advice).
A conservative approach to the management of skin lesions is recommended, with the aim to relieve discomfort, speed healing, and prevent complications. However, the optimal management of skin lesions is uncertain.[1]
Advise patients not to scratch the skin, and to keep the skin lesions clean (i.e., with sterile water or antiseptic solution) and dry. The rash should not be covered. Avoid the use of plasters.
Monitor lesions for secondary bacterial infection (e.g., erythema, warmth, induration, worsening pain, purulent or malodorous discharge, recurrence of fever) and, if present, treat with appropriate oral antibiotic therapy.
The decision to initiate antibiotic therapy and choice of antibiotic should be based on individual clinical assessment and local antimicrobial resistance patterns. Follow your local protocols.
Prophylactic antibiotics are not recommended. Evidence on use of antibiotics for prophylaxis against secondary skin infections is anecdotal and limited.[5] Despite this, some centers may use topical antibiotics for prophylaxis in select patients (e.g., lesions on anogenital region, immunocompromised).[275]
Hospital admission may be required for a small proportion of patients with painful or infected skin or mucosal lesions for pain management and/or antibiotic therapy.[212] See section below.
Appropriate wound care is recommended and should include the following general principles:[276]
Cleanse wounds with gentle soap and water
Create a moist wound healing environment (e.g., apply topical petrolatum and/or occlusive nonstick dressings)
Protect skin at the borders of a large wound (e.g., apply a protective coating of white petrolatum, zinc oxide paste, or silicone film).
Consider specialist referral if there is suspicion of exfoliation or deeper soft-tissue infection.
Monitor patients for deterioration of their clinical condition.[1]
Advise patients about signs and symptoms of complications that should prompt urgent care (e.g., lesions get worse or increase in quantity, worsening pain, persistent fever, decreased oral intake, visual symptoms, difficult breathing, dizziness, confusion).
Severe or complicated disease or patients at high risk of severe disease
Patients with severe disease, or those who are at increased risk of severe disease, typically require hospitalization, supportive care, and antiviral therapy.
The patient will be transferred to a specialized center for further care if hospitalization is required.
For more information on patients who meet criteria for severe or complicated disease, or those who are at increased risk of severe disease, see Diagnosis approach.
Patients may require hospital admission for the management of pain and swelling, difficulty swallowing (odynophagia), eye lesions, or complications (e.g., bacterial superinfection).[109][203][204][208][227][230][277][278]
Data from the 2022 global clade II mpox outbreak indicate that approximately 7% to 13% of cases required hospital admission. A meta-analysis of over 7000 cases found the hospitalization rate to be 14.1%; however, this analysis included cases prior to the 2022 outbreak. The hospitalization rate has decreased from 49.8% for pre-2017 outbreaks to 5.8% during the 2022 outbreak.[279]
Clinical reasons for admission include severe pain including anorectal pain and proctitis, severe penile edema, constipation or urinary retention, soft-tissue superinfection, pharyngitis limiting oral intake, coinfections with sexually transmitted diseases, lesions that require surgical intervention, or eye lesions.
The most common reasons for hospitalization are:[280]
Bacterial cellulitis or abscess with severe pain, especially in the tonsillar or anogenital regions (55.8%)
Oral ulcers (14.3%)
Proctitis (11.7%)
Dysphagia, ocular involvement, urethritis, colitis, and respiratory complications (18.2%).
No serious complications were reported in the majority of those admitted. However, rare complications such as epiglottitis, tonsillitis, peritonsillar cellulitis, tonsillar/peritonsillar abscess, paraphimosis/phimosis, balanitis, perianal/groin abscess, rectal perforation, urethritis, encephalitis, pneumonitis, and myocarditis have been observed. See Complications.
Admit patients with severe or complicated disease, or those who are at high risk for severe disease or complications, to hospital for closer monitoring and clinical care. Follow your local protocols.[1]
Monitor vital signs, neurologic status, volume status, respiratory system, and signs of perfusion.
Monitor laboratory values including complete blood count, urea and electrolytes, and liver function.
Assess pain, general condition, nutrition status, and rash characteristics (i.e., stage, location, number of lesions, presence of exfoliation or secondary bacterial infections).
Provide symptomatic treatment as necessary (see Mild or uncomplicated disease above).
Manage patients with optimized supportive care interventions. Follow your local protocols.[1]
Pay attention to fluid balance, oxygenation, nutrition, symptom relief (see Mild or uncomplicated disease above), prompt treatment of additional secondary bacterial infections, and management of complications and prevention of long-term sequelae.
Intravenous or intraosseous fluids, given as one or multiple boluses with close monitoring of fluid responsiveness, are recommended for the management of severe dehydration caused by intravascular volume loss.
Enteral nutrition may be required if the patient is unable to tolerate oral nutrition.
Pharmacologic treatment may be required if the patient is agitated and becomes a danger to themself, other patients, or healthcare workers.
For specific information on how to manage complications, see Complications.
Consider antiviral therapy in patients with (or at high risk of) severe disease or protracted or life-threatening sickness.[1][229]
See Antiviral therapy below.
Antiviral therapy
Antiviral agents developed for the treatment of smallpox (e.g., tecovirimat, brincidofovir, cidofovir) have activity against mpox and may be beneficial.[247][281][282]
Antiviral therapy is recommended in patients with (or at high risk of) severe disease or protracted or life-threatening sickness, including severely immunocompromised patients, people with atopic dermatitis and other conditions that affect skin integrity, children, and pregnant/breast-feeding women. Treatment should be started early in the disease course. However, there are no safety and efficacy data in humans to support the use of antiviral therapy for this indication.[1][229]
The CDC have developed a management algorithm outlining the approach to patients with suspected, probable, or confirmed mpox, particularly those with protracted or life-threatening manifestations, to aid decision-making regarding the use of therapeutics.[283]
Tecovirimat (an inhibitor of the Orthopoxvirus VP37 envelope wrapping protein) is generally recommended as the first-line treatment for patients who require antiviral therapy.[229]
It is approved in the UK and Europe for the treatment of mpox. In the UK, it may be offered to symptomatic patients who have been admitted to hospital with severe or complicated infection.
It is approved in the US for smallpox, but may be used under an expanded access investigational new drug protocol for the treatment of mpox in patients who meet eligibility criteria. It can also be obtained via participation in the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease-funded Study of Tecovirimat for Mpox (STOMP) trial.
Alternative antivirals that may be approved or recommended for smallpox include brincidofovir (an Orthopoxvirus nucleotide analog DNA polymerase inhibitor and prodrug of cidofovir), cidofovir (a nucleotide analog antiviral with activity against poxviruses), or vaccinia immune globulin (see Emerging).
Brincidofovir has orphan-drug designation for the treatment of smallpox in Europe. It is approved in the US for smallpox, but is also available for the treatment of mpox in select patients under a Food and Drug Administration-authorized single-patient emergency-use expanded access investigational new drug protocol.[229]
Cidofovir is approved in the US for cytomegalovirus retinitis in patients with AIDS, but it may be considered for use in patients with severe mpox off-label.[229]
These alternative agents may be used off-label for mpox in some countries according to guidance from local public health authorities.
The CDC recommends that these treatments can be considered as additive or alternative therapies for:[229]
Ocular infections
Patients with protracted or life-threatening manifestations of mpox because of, for example, severe immunocompromise
Patients experiencing clinically significant disease progression on tecovirimat, or who develop recrudescence after an initial period of improvement on tecovirimat
Patients for whom there is a concern of the development of tecovirimat resistance
Patients who are allergic to tecovirimat, or who are otherwise unable to receive tecovirimat.
Decisions should be made on a case-by-case basis and based on clinical and other parameters. Nearly all patients treated with brincidofovir or cidofovir are severely immunocompromised and require combination treatment with tecovirimat.
Cases and clusters of laboratory-confirmed tecovirimat resistance have been reported in immunocompromised patients, particularly those on multiple or long courses of tecovirimat, as well as people with no documentation of previous tecovirimat treatment (due to the spread of a tecovirimat-resistant variant of the virus).[284][285][286] Consider testing lesion swab specimens for tecovirimat resistance and plasma pharmacokinetic sample collection (to see if drug levels are below target concentrations) for any patient who experiences persistent or newly emerging lesions after completing 14 days of treatment.[287]
Post-treatment lesions have been reported after the administration of tecovirimat (i.e., occurrence of new skin or mucosal lesions in a patient with probable or confirmed mpox emerging ≤30 days after completing the recommended 14-day treatment course and after improvement or resolution of initial lesions). Further research is required to understand the etiology of these new lesions.[288]
Evidence to support the use of antiviral therapy is limited. There are no randomized controlled trial data available to support the use of antivirals. One Cochrane review found no evidence from randomized controlled trials concerning the safety and efficacy of these drugs, although trials are ongoing for tecovirimat in both adults and children.[289]
Tecovirimat
Efficacy has been confirmed in two animal model studies using orthopoxviruses, and safety has been confirmed in a phase 3 trial of 359 healthy human volunteers.[290][291]
Efficacy for mpox in humans is limited to case reports and case studies.[292][293][294][295][296][297][298][299]
Safety and efficacy data for pregnant or breast-feeding women and children are lacking. The recommendation to use tecovirimat in pregnant women is based on animal studies where no embryo-fetal developmental toxicity was observed.[40][133]
Early treatment with tecovirimat may help with pain control in patients with severe proctitis, based on case reports.[272] However, there is no evidence to support this.
Randomized controlled trials are in development or ongoing (e.g., STOMP trial), and patients should be encouraged to enroll when trials are available.[300][301][302][303]
An initial analysis of the PALM007 trial, a randomized, placebo-controlled trial conducted in the DRC, indicated that tecovirimat did not reduce the duration of lesions among children and adults with clade I mpox compared with placebo. However, overall mortality in the study was lower compared with overall mortality reported for all cases across the DRC (i.e., 1.7% vs. 3.6%), likely due to study participants receiving supportive care in hospital.[304][305] The study is yet to be published.
HIV status does not appear to affect treatment outcomes with tecovirimat.[306][307]
One Cochrane review found very-low certainty evidence from nonrandomized studies that indicated no serious safety signals with tecovirimat.[289]
Brincidofovir
There are no data available on the efficacy of brincidofovir in treating human cases of mpox.
One Cochrane review found very-low certainty evidence that suggests a safety signal of liver injury with brincidofovir.[289]
Cidofovir
These drugs may be stockpiled in some countries, but are not yet widely available.
It is preferable to use antivirals under randomized clinical trials with collection of standardized clinical and outcome data. If this is not possible, antivirals may be used under expanded access protocols.[1]
Consult your local public health authority for guidance on the use of antiviral therapy.
Discontinuation of isolation precautions and discharge
Decisions regarding discontinuation of isolation precautions depend on whether the patient is hospitalized or self-isolating in a household setting, and should be made in consultation with the local public health authority.[262]
In general, precautions should be continued until all lesions have resolved and a fresh layer of skin has formed.
Prolonged upper respiratory tract viral shedding and viremia after skin lesion resolution has been reported in a small number of patients, leading to extended isolation in hospital.[292]
In hospitalized patients, the UKHSA recommends that isolation precautions may end when the following criteria are met:[315]
Clinical criteria: the patient is judged to be clinically well enough for safe de-isolation as judged by the clinical team managing the patient
Laboratory criteria: the patient tests negative on polymerase chain reaction for all three of the following samples:
Urine
Throat swab
Ethylenediamine tetra-acetic acid (EDTA) blood (it is acceptable not to send EDTA blood if no sample was sent previously as the patient was well throughout admission)
Lesion criteria: there have been no new lesions for 48 hours; there are no mucous membrane lesions; and all lesions have crusted over, scabs have dropped off, and intact skin remains underneath.
Patients can be discharged from an isolation facility/ward to another hospital ward, a different inpatient facility, or a residential facility (e.g., care home) only when all of the above clinical, laboratory, and lesion criteria are met. Patients can be discharged to their home, without the need for ongoing isolation, if all of the above criteria are met. Patients who meet the clinical criteria, but who do not meet either the laboratory or lesion criteria, may be discharged to continue isolation at home (according to current public health regulations) where it is safe to do so as assessed by the treating clinician.
In household settings, the UKHSA recommends that patients are able to end self-isolation at home once the following lesion criteria are met:[315]
No new lesions for 48 hours
No oral mucous membrane lesions
All lesions have crusted over
All lesions on exposed skin (including face, arms, and hands) have scabbed over, the scabs have dropped off, and a fresh layer of skin has formed underneath
Lesions in other areas can remain covered throughout the patient’s time outside of their home or when in contact with other people
The patient can resume full normal activities with no restrictions (full de-isolation) when they meet the following lesion criteria:[315]
No new lesions for 48 hours
No mucous membrane lesions
All lesions (for both exposed and unexposed areas) have crusted over, all scabs have dropped off, and intact skin remains underneath.
Advise patients to avoid close contact with immunocompromised people, pregnant women, and children <12 years of age until they meet full de-isolation criteria above (this may include exclusion from work if their work requires close contact with any of these groups).
Children and adolescents
Consider treatment on a case-by-case basis in children and adolescents with suspected, probable, or confirmed mpox who have severe disease or who are at risk of severe disease (e.g., children <1 year, severely immunocompromised, condition affecting skin integrity), or who have involvement of anatomic areas which might result in serious sequelae. Antiviral treatment may be considered in children ages <6 months (in consultation with your local public health authority), as it is unclear whether younger children can develop more severe illness. Management is generally the same as for adults, with a few exceptions.[40]
Take the child’s age, caregiving needs, and family and caregiver preferences into consideration for isolation and infection control in children who require hospitalization. Limit the number of caregivers to one person, when possible, regardless of whether the child is in hospital or at home.
Pay particular attention to keeping skin lesions covered and preventing children from scratching lesions or touching their eyes in order to prevent autoinoculation and more severe disease.
Tecovirimat is also the recommended first-line antiviral agent in children and adolescents, if treatment is indicated. However, safety and efficacy data are lacking and no clinical studies have been performed in pediatric populations. Alternative antiviral agents (e.g., cidofovir, brincidofovir) are reserved for unusual circumstances (e.g., very severe infections, disease progression despite tecovirimat treatment, tecovirimat is contraindicated or unavailable) due to their potential toxicity.
Pregnant and breast-feeding women
Prioritize pregnant (or recently pregnant) and breast-feeding women for treatment due to the probable increased risk for severe disease during pregnancy and the risk of transmission to the fetus or newborn baby.[133]
Discuss the risks and benefits of treatment with the patient using shared decision-making.
Closely monitor the patient for severe disease and pregnancy complications.
Direct contact between a patient in isolation and their newborn is not advised. Separation is advised; however, if the patient chooses to have contact with the newborn during the infectious period, strict precautions should be taken (e.g., no direct skin-to-skin contact; wearing gloves, gown, and mask).
It is unknown whether monkeypox virus is present in breast milk. However, mpox is spread via close contact and breast-feeding should therefore be delayed until criteria for discontinuing isolation are met.
Pregnant (or recently pregnant) women with mild or uncomplicated disease may not require hospitalization; however, close monitoring in a health facility may be preferred. Admit pregnant women with severe or complicated disease to a health facility for optimized supportive care and/or interventions to improve maternal and fetal survival.[1]
Method of delivery should be individualized, based on obstetric indications and the woman’s preferences. Induction of labor and cesarean section should only be undertaken when medically justified and based on maternal and fetal condition.
Monitor newborn infants closely for evidence of potential congenital or perinatal exposure or infection.
It is currently unknown whether the virus or antibodies are present in the breast milk of an infected mother. Infant feeding practices should be assessed on a case-by-case basis, taking the mother’s physical status and severity of disease into consideration.
General infection prevention and control measures are recommended for mothers when handling and feeding their infants (e.g., hand hygiene, wearing a mask if possible, covering any lesions that have direct contact with the infant).
Antiviral therapies should be used with caution in pregnant (or recently pregnant) and breast-feeding women, and only under the guidance of a local public health authority due to limited data in this population.
Tecovirimat is recommended first line in pregnant (or recently pregnant) and breast-feeding women, if treatment is indicated. However, there are limited data on human use during pregnancy or breast-feeding and the recommendation is based on animal studies (no embryo-fetal developmental toxicity was observed in animal studies).[133] In a study that included 23 pregnant women, 11 received tecovirimat (including first trimester use) and no adverse effects were reported.[20] A case of a pregnant woman receiving tecovirimat in the third trimester has been reported. No maternal or neonatal complications were reported, and there was no evidence of neonatal infection.[316]
Cidofovir and brincidofovir have shown evidence of teratogenicity in animal studies and should not be used during the first trimester of pregnancy or in breast-feeding women.[133]
Further guidelines for the management of pregnant women have been proposed.[317][318]
Immunocompromised
People with HIV-associated immunosuppression (i.e., CD4 counts <200 cells/microliter, and especially <50 cells/microliter)and people who are immunocompromised from other conditions or using immunosuppressive agents may be at increased risk of severe or prolonged disease, hospitalization, and disseminated disease (particularly those who are severely immunocompromised). Treatment and close monitoring is a priority in these patients.[41][42]
Severe complications were more common in patients with CD4 counts <100 cells/microliter compared with patients with CD4 counts <300 cells/microliter, and included necrotizing skin lesions, lung dysfunction, secondary infections, and sepsis. All deaths were among patients with CD4 counts <200 cells/microliter, and most occurred in those with a high HIV viral load.[148]
Early optimization of immune function is important in immunocompromised patients. Delay chemotherapy or immunomodulatory therapies during treatment (or decrease doses), if possible. There is no high-quality evidence to either support or refute the use of immunomodulators in patients with mpox. However, models suggest corticosteroids are associated with severe illness and possibly death in orthopoxvirus-infected animals. Use systemic immunomodulators (including corticosteroids) with caution, or reduce their use if feasible, weighing the risks and benefits of their use.[283]
Continue (or start/restart) antiretroviral therapy (ART) and opportunistic infection prophylaxis while managing mpox, as treatment interruption could lead to rebound viremia, which could complicate the disease course. People taking ART for pre- or postexposure prophylaxis should continue to do so. People not taking ART should initiate ART as soon as possible (in consultation with an expert in HIV medicine) to improve immune function, ideally at the same time as mpox therapy.
Always check for drug-drug interactions between antivirals used for the treatment of mpox and ART (or other treatments) for HIV infection.
Monitor viral load and CD4 count during treatment and follow-up. Case series have shown alterations in these parameters are possible during infection.[319]
Tecovirimat (potentially the intravenous formulation) is recommended first line in immunocompromised patients, if treatment is indicated. Start treatment as soon as possible, and consider extending the treatment course beyond the standard 14-day course on a day-by-day basis. Addition of other therapeutics (e.g., cidofovir, brincidofovir, vaccinia immune globulin) may be considered for those not improving or those progressing while on tecovirimat, or depending on the severity of immunocompromise and uncontrolled viral replication.[41][42][320] Combination therapy may be considered for severe disease at the first medical encounter (in consult with your local public health authority or an expert in the management of mpox).[320]
The British HIV Association does not currently recommend any specific actions for people with HIV infection beyond vigilance about clinical presentation and history of exposure (except vaccine considerations). People with a CD4 count <200 cells/microliter, persistent viremia (e.g., >200 copies/mL), recent HIV-related illness, or concomitant conditions or treatments that may cause immunosuppression may be at higher risk for infection and complications, and should be prioritized for specialist review.[172]
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