Community-acquired pneumonia in children

Bradley JS, Byington CL, Shah SS, et al. The management of community-acquired pneumonia in infants and children older than 3 months of age: clinical practice guidelines by the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society and the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2011 Oct;53(7):e25-76.Texto completo  Resumen

Harris M, Clark J, Coote N, et al; British Thoracic Society Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in children: update 2011. Thorax. 2011 Oct;66 Suppl 2:ii1-23.Texto completo  Resumen

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia: diagnosis and management. Sep 2025 [internet publication].Texto completo

Chan SS, Kotecha MK, Rigsby CK, et al; Expert Panel on Pediatric Imaging. ACR appropriateness criteria®: pneumonia in the immunocompetent child. J Am Coll Radiol. 2020 May;17(5 Suppl):S215-25.Texto completo  Resumen

1. Bradley JS, Byington CL, Shah SS, et al. The management of community-acquired pneumonia in infants and children older than 3 months of age: clinical practice guidelines by the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society and the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2011 Oct;53(7):e25-76.Texto completo  Resumen

2. de Benedictis FM, Kerem E, Chang AB, et al. Complicated pneumonia in children. Lancet. 2020 Sep 12;396(10253):786-98. Resumen

3. Haq IJ, Battersby AC, Eastham K, et al. Community acquired pneumonia in children. BMJ. 2017 Mar 2;356:j686. Resumen

4. Jain S, Williams DJ, Arnold SR, et al; CDC EPIC Study Team. Community-acquired pneumonia requiring hospitalization among U.S. children. N Engl J Med. 2015 Feb 26;372(9):835-45.Texto completo  Resumen

5. Shah SN, Bachur RG, Simel DL, et al. Does this child have pneumonia?: the rational clinical examination systematic review. JAMA. 2017 Aug 1;318(5):462-71. Resumen

6. World Health Organization. Factsheet: pneumonia in children. Nov 2022 [internet publication].Texto completo

7. Chee E, Huang K, Haggie S, et al. Systematic review of clinical practice guidelines on the management of community acquired pneumonia in children. Paediatr Respir Rev. 2022 Jun;42:59-68. Resumen

8. Popovsky EY, Florin TA. Community-acquired pneumonia in childhood. In: Janes SM, ed. Encyclopedia of respiratory medicine. 2nd ed. Cambridge, MA: Academic Press; 2022:119-31.Texto completo

9. Harris M, Clark J, Coote N, et al; British Thoracic Society Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in children: update 2011. Thorax. 2011 Oct;66 Suppl 2:ii1-23.Texto completo  Resumen

10. Rees CA, Kuppermann N, Florin TA. Community-acquired pneumonia in children. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2023 Dec 1;39(12):968-76. Resumen

11. Shah SS, Bradley JS. Pediatric community-acquired pneumonia.​ In: Cherry JD, Harrison GJ, Kaplan SL, et al, eds. Feigin and Cherry’s textbook of pediatric infectious diseases. 8th edition. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2019:208-19.

12. Man WH, van Houten MA, Mérelle ME, et al. Bacterial and viral respiratory tract microbiota and host characteristics in children with lower respiratory tract infections: a matched case-control study. Lancet Respir Med. 2019 May;7(5):417-26.Texto completo  Resumen

13. Ctori E, Crucean A, Pinkey B, et al. Morphology of vascular ring arch anomalies influences prognosis and management. Arch Dis Child. 2021 Apr 21;106(5):477-83. Resumen

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15. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia: diagnosis and management. Sep 2025 [internet publication].Texto completo

16. Chan SS, Kotecha MK, Rigsby CK, et al; Expert Panel on Pediatric Imaging. ACR appropriateness criteria®: pneumonia in the immunocompetent child. J Am Coll Radiol. 2020 May;17(5 Suppl):S215-25.Texto completo  Resumen

17. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Fever in under 5s: assessment and initial management. Nov 2021 [internet publication].​Texto completo

18. Clark JE, Hammal D, Spencer D, et al. Children with pneumonia: how do they present and how are they managed? Arch Dis Child. 2007 May;92(5):394-8.Texto completo  Resumen

19. Ramgopal S, Ambroggio L, Lorenz D, et al. A prediction model for pediatric radiographic pneumonia. Pediatrics. 2022 Jan 1;149(1):e2021051405.Texto completo  Resumen

20. Neuman MI, Monuteaux MC, Scully KJ, et al. Prediction of pneumonia in a pediatric emergency department. Pediatrics. 2011 Aug;128(2):246-53. Resumen

21. Mathews B, Shah S, Cleveland RH, et al. Clinical predictors of pneumonia among children with wheezing. Pediatrics. 2009 Jul;124(1):e29-36. Resumen

22. O’Connor MG, Mosquera R, Metjian H, et al., Primary ciliary dyskinesia. Chest Pulm. 2023 Jun;1(1):100004.Texto completo

23. Diaz MH, Benitez AJ, Winchell JM. Investigations of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infections in the United States: trends in molecular typing and macrolide resistance from 2006 to 2013. J Clin Microbiol. 2015 Jan;53(1):124-30.Texto completo  Resumen

24. Wang K, Gill P, Perera R, et al. Clinical symptoms and signs for the diagnosis of Mycoplasma pneumoniae in children and adolescents with community-acquired pneumonia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012 Oct 17;(10):CD009175.Texto completo  Resumen

25. Smyth A, Carty H, Hart CA. Clinical predictors of hypoxaemia in children with pneumonia. Ann Trop Paediatr. 1998 Mar;18(1):31-40. Resumen

26. World Health Organization. Recommendations for management of common childhood conditions: evidence for technical update of pocket book recommendations. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2012​.Texto completo

27. Fleming S, Thompson M, Stevens R, et al. Normal ranges of heart rate and respiratory rate in children from birth to 18 years of age: a systematic review of observational studies. Lancet. 2011 Mar 19;377(9770):1011-8.Texto completo  Resumen

28. McGann KA, Long SS. Respiratory tract symptom complexes. In: Long SS, Prober CG, Fischer M, et al, eds. Principles and practice of pediatric infectious diseases. 6th edition. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2022:169-77.

29. Cao AM, Choy JP, Mohanakrishnan LN, et al. Chest radiographs for acute lower respiratory tract infections. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013 Dec 26;(12):CD009119.Texto completo  Resumen

30. Pereda MA, Chavez MA, Hooper-Miele CC, et al. Lung ultrasound for the diagnosis of pneumonia in children: a meta-analysis. Pediatrics. 2015 Apr;135(4):714-22.Texto completo  Resumen

31. Tsou PY, Chen KP, Wang YH, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of lung ultrasound performed by novice versus advanced sonographers for pneumonia in children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Acad Emerg Med. 2019 Sep;26(9):1074-88.Texto completo  Resumen

32. Myers AL, Hall M, Williams DJ, et al. Prevalence of bacteremia in hospitalized pediatric patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2013 Jul;32(7):736-40.Texto completo  Resumen

33. Neuman MI, Hall M, Lipsett SC, et al; Pediatric Research in Inpatient Settings Network. Utility of blood culture among children hospitalized with community-acquired pneumonia. Pediatrics. 2017 Sep;140(3):e20171013.Texto completo  Resumen

34. Clark TW, Lindsley K, Wigmosta TB, et al. Rapid multiplex PCR for respiratory viruses reduces time to result and improves clinical care: results of a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Infect. 2023 May;86(5):462-75.Texto completo  Resumen

35. Ouafi M, Dubos F, Engelmann I, et al. Rapid syndromic testing for respiratory viral infections in children attending the emergency department during COVID-19 pandemic in Lille, France, 2021-2022. J Clin Virol. 2022 Aug;153:105221.Texto completo  Resumen

36. Mattila S, Paalanne N, Honkila M, et al. Effect of point-of-care testing for respiratory pathogens on antibiotic use in children: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Netw Open. 2022 Jun 1;5(6):e2216162.Texto completo  Resumen

37. Spuesens EB, Fraaij PL, Visser EG, et al. Carriage of Mycoplasma pneumoniae in the upper respiratory tract of symptomatic and asymptomatic children: an observational study. PLoS Med. 2013;10(5):e1001444.Texto completo  Resumen

38. Stockmann C, Ampofo K, Killpack J, et al. Procalcitonin accurately identifies hospitalized children with low risk of bacterial community-acquired pneumonia. J Pediatric Infect Dis Soc. 2018 Feb 19;7(1):46-53.Texto completo  Resumen

39. Florin TA, Williams DJ. PRO: Procalcitonin has clinical utility in children with community-acquired pneumonia. JAC Antimicrob Resist. 2021 Dec;3(4):dlab158.Texto completo  Resumen

40. Tsou PY, Rafael J, Ma YK, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of procalcitonin for bacterial pneumonia in children - a systematic review and meta-analysis. Infect Dis (Lond). 2020 Oct;52(10):683-97. Resumen

41. Committee on Infectious Diseases, American Academy of Pediatrics. Pertussis. In: Kimberlin DW, Barnett ED, Lynfield R, et al, eds. The Red Book: 2021-2024 report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. 32nd edition. Itaska, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2021:578-89​.

42. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Whooping cough (pertussis): laboratory testing for pertussis. Apr 2024 [internet publication].Texto completo

43. Smith DK, McDermott AJ, Sullivan JF. Croup: diagnosis and management. Am Fam Physician. 2018 May 1;97(9):575-80.Texto completo  Resumen

44. Alberta Health Services. Provincial clinical knowledge topic: croup, pediatric - emergency and inpatient. V 1.0​. Alberta, Canada: Alberta Health Services; 2018.Texto completo

45. Denny FW, Murphy TF, Clyde WA Jr, et al. Croup: an 11-year study in a pediatric practice. Pediatrics. 1983 Jun;71(6):871-6. Resumen

46. Ralston SL, Lieberthal AS, Meissner HC, et al. Clinical practice guideline: the diagnosis, management, and prevention of bronchiolitis. Pediatrics. 2014;134(5):e1474-502. [Erratum in: Pediatrics. 2015 Oct;136(4):782.]Texto completo  Resumen

47. Righini CA, Morel N, Karkas A, et al. What is the diagnostic value of flexible bronchoscopy in the initial investigation of children with suspected foreign body aspiration? Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2007 Sep;71(9):1383-90. Resumen

48. National Asthma Council. Australian asthma handbook. Apr 2022 [internet publication]​.Texto completo

49. World Health Organization. Revised WHO classification and treatment of childhood pneumonia at health facilities: evidence summaries.​ Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2014.Texto completo

50. Lodha R, Kabra SK, Pandey RM. Antibiotics for community-acquired pneumonia in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013 Jun 4;(6):CD004874.Texto completo  Resumen

51. Rojas MX, Granados C. Oral antibiotics versus parenteral antibiotics for severe pneumonia in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006 Apr 19;(2):CD004979.Texto completo  Resumen

52. Committee on Infectious Diseases. Recommendations for Prevention and Control of Influenza in Children, 2025-2026: Policy Statement. Pediatrics. 2025 Dec 1;156(6):e2025073620.Texto completo  Resumen

53. Atkinson M, Lakhanpaul M, Smyth A, et al. Comparison of oral amoxicillin and intravenous benzyl penicillin for community acquired pneumonia in children (PIVOT trial): a multicentre pragmatic randomised controlled equivalence trial. Thorax. 2007 Dec;62(12):1102-6.Texto completo  Resumen

54. Addo-Yobo E, Chisaka N, Hassan M, et al. Oral amoxicillin versus injectable penicillin for severe pneumonia in children aged 3 to 59 months: a randomised multicentre equivalency study. Lancet. 2004 Sep 25-Oct 1;364(9440):1141-8. Resumen

55. Hazir T, Fox LM, Nisar YB, et al; New Outpatient Short-Course Home Oral Therapy for Severe Pneumonia Study Group. Ambulatory short-course high-dose oral amoxicillin for treatment of severe pneumonia in children: a randomised equivalency trial. Lancet. 2008 Jan 5;371(9606):49-56. Resumen

56. World Health Organization. ​Guideline on management of pneumonia and diarrhoea in children up to 10 years of age. Dec 2024 [internet publication].Texto completo

57. Haider BA, Saeed MA, Bhutta ZA. Short-course versus long-course antibiotic therapy for non-severe community-acquired pneumonia in children aged 2 months to 59 months. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008 Apr 16;(2):CD005976.Texto completo  Resumen

58. Bielicki JA, Stöhr W, Barratt S, et al; PERUKI, GAPRUKI, and the CAP-IT Trial Group. Effect of amoxicillin dose and treatment duration on the need for antibiotic re-treatment in children with community-acquired pneumonia: the CAP-IT randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2021 Nov 2;326(17):1713-24.Texto completo  Resumen

59. Williams DJ, Creech CB, Walter EB, et al; The DMID 14-0079 Study Team. Short- vs standard-course outpatient antibiotic therapy for community-acquired pneumonia in children: the SCOUT-CAP randomized clinical trial. JAMA Pediatr. 2022 Mar 1;176(3):253-61.Texto completo  Resumen

60. Li Q, Zhou Q, Florez ID, et al. Short-course vs long-course antibiotic therapy for children with nonsevere community-acquired pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatr. 2022 Dec 1;176(12):1199-207.Texto completo  Resumen

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62. American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Infectious Diseases. Recommendations for prevention and control of influenza in children, 2023-2024. Pediatrics. 2023 Oct 1;152(4):e2023063773.Texto completo  Resumen

63. Jefferson T, Jones M, Doshi P, et al. Oseltamivir for influenza in adults and children: systematic review of clinical study reports and summary of regulatory comments. BMJ. 2014 Apr 9;348:g2545.Texto completo  Resumen

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67. Wrotek A, Jackowska T. Hyponatremia in children hospitalized due to pneumonia. In: Pokorski M, ed. Neurobiology of respiration. Advances in experimental medicine and biology, 788. Dordrecht, Germany: Springer; 2013:103-8. Resumen

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69. Kushner LE, Nieves DJ, Osborne S, et al. Oral antibiotics for treating children with community-acquired pneumonia complicated by empyema. Clin Pediatr (Phila). 2019 Nov;58(13):1401-8. Resumen

70. Legg J, Rampton C. British Thoracic Society paediatric pneumonia audit. National audit period: 1 November 2016 - 31 January 2017. ​Jan 2018 [internet publication].Texto completo

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