Community-acquired pneumonia in children

References

Key articles

Bradley JS, Byington CL, Shah SS, et al. The management of community-acquired pneumonia in infants and children older than 3 months of age: clinical practice guidelines by the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society and the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2011 Oct;53(7):e25-76.Full text  Abstract

Harris M, Clark J, Coote N, et al; British Thoracic Society Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in children: update 2011. Thorax. 2011 Oct;66 Suppl 2:ii1-23.Full text  Abstract

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Child and adolescent immunization schedule by age​: recommendations for ages 18 years or younger, United States, 2024. Nov 2023 [internet publication].Full text

Chan SS, Kotecha MK, Rigsby CK, et al; Expert Panel on Pediatric Imaging. ACR appropriateness criteria®: pneumonia in the immunocompetent child. J Am Coll Radiol. 2020 May;17(5 Suppl):S215-25.Full text  Abstract

Reference articles

1. Bradley JS, Byington CL, Shah SS, et al. The management of community-acquired pneumonia in infants and children older than 3 months of age: clinical practice guidelines by the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society and the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2011 Oct;53(7):e25-76.Full text  Abstract

2. de Benedictis FM, Kerem E, Chang AB, et al. Complicated pneumonia in children. Lancet. 2020 Sep 12;396(10253):786-98. Abstract

3. Haq IJ, Battersby AC, Eastham K, et al. Community acquired pneumonia in children. BMJ. 2017 Mar 2;356:j686. Abstract

4. Jain S, Williams DJ, Arnold SR, et al; CDC EPIC Study Team. Community-acquired pneumonia requiring hospitalization among U.S. children. N Engl J Med. 2015 Feb 26;372(9):835-45.Full text  Abstract

5. Shah SN, Bachur RG, Simel DL, et al. Does this child have pneumonia?: the rational clinical examination systematic review. JAMA. 2017 Aug 1;318(5):462-71. Abstract

6. World Health Organization. Factsheet: pneumonia in children. Nov 2022 [internet publication].Full text

7. Chee E, Huang K, Haggie S, et al. Systematic review of clinical practice guidelines on the management of community acquired pneumonia in children. Paediatr Respir Rev. 2022 Jun;42:59-68. Abstract

8. Popovsky EY, Florin TA. Community-acquired pneumonia in childhood. In: Janes SM, ed. Encyclopedia of respiratory medicine. 2nd ed. Cambridge, MA: Academic Press; 2022:119-31.Full text

9. Harris M, Clark J, Coote N, et al; British Thoracic Society Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in children: update 2011. Thorax. 2011 Oct;66 Suppl 2:ii1-23.Full text  Abstract

10. Rees CA, Kuppermann N, Florin TA. Community-acquired pneumonia in children. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2023 Dec 1;39(12):968-76. Abstract

11. Shah SS, Bradley JS. Pediatric community-acquired pneumonia.​ In: Cherry JD, Harrison GJ, Kaplan SL, et al, eds. Feigin and Cherry’s textbook of pediatric infectious siseases. 8th edition. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2019:208-19.

12. Man WH, van Houten MA, Mérelle ME, et al. Bacterial and viral respiratory tract microbiota and host characteristics in children with lower respiratory tract infections: a matched case-control study. Lancet Respir Med. 2019 May;7(5):417-26.Full text  Abstract

13. Ctori E, Crucean A, Pinkey B, et al. Morphology of vascular ring arch anomalies influences prognosis and management. Arch Dis Child. 2021 Apr 21;106(5):477-83. Abstract

14. Bhat YA, Alhabshan F, Almesned A, et al. Can echocardiography aid in diagnosing vascular rings? Cureus. 2023 Dec;15(12):e50899.Full text  Abstract

15. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Child and adolescent immunization schedule by age​: recommendations for ages 18 years or younger, United States, 2024. Nov 2023 [internet publication].Full text

16. Jones JM, Fleming-Dutra KE, Prill MM, et al. Use of nirsevimab for the prevention of respiratory syncytial virus disease among infants and young children: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices - United States, 2023. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2023 Aug 25;72(34):920-5.Full text  Abstract

17. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia (community-acquired): antimicrobial prescribing. Sep 2019 [internet publication].Full text

18. Chan SS, Kotecha MK, Rigsby CK, et al; Expert Panel on Pediatric Imaging. ACR appropriateness criteria®: pneumonia in the immunocompetent child. J Am Coll Radiol. 2020 May;17(5 Suppl):S215-25.Full text  Abstract

19. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Fever in under 5s: assessment and initial management. Nov 2021 [internet publication].​Full text

20. Clark JE, Hammal D, Spencer D, et al. Children with pneumonia: how do they present and how are they managed? Arch Dis Child. 2007 May;92(5):394-8.Full text  Abstract

21. Ramgopal S, Ambroggio L, Lorenz D, et al. A prediction model for pediatric radiographic pneumonia. Pediatrics. 2022 Jan 1;149(1):e2021051405.Full text  Abstract

22. Neuman MI, Monuteaux MC, Scully KJ, et al. Prediction of pneumonia in a pediatric emergency department. Pediatrics. 2011 Aug;128(2):246-53. Abstract

23. Mathews B, Shah S, Cleveland RH, et al. Clinical predictors of pneumonia among children with wheezing. Pediatrics. 2009 Jul;124(1):e29-36. Abstract

24. O’Connor MG, Mosquera R, Metjian H, et al., Primary ciliary dyskinesia. Chest Pulm. 2023 Jun;1(1):100004.Full text

25. Diaz MH, Benitez AJ, Winchell JM. Investigations of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infections in the United States: trends in molecular typing and macrolide resistance from 2006 to 2013. J Clin Microbiol. 2015 Jan;53(1):124-30.Full text  Abstract

26. Wang K, Gill P, Perera R, et al. Clinical symptoms and signs for the diagnosis of Mycoplasma pneumoniae in children and adolescents with community-acquired pneumonia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012 Oct 17;(10):CD009175.Full text  Abstract

27. Smyth A, Carty H, Hart CA. Clinical predictors of hypoxaemia in children with pneumonia. Ann Trop Paediatr. 1998 Mar;18(1):31-40. Abstract

28. World Health Organization. Recommendations for management of common childhood conditions: evidence for technical update of pocket book recommendations. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2012​.Full text

29. Fleming S, Thompson M, Stevens R, et al. Normal ranges of heart rate and respiratory rate in children from birth to 18 years of age: a systematic review of observational studies. Lancet. 2011 Mar 19;377(9770):1011-8.Full text  Abstract

30. McGann KA, Long SS. Respiratory tract symptom complexes. In: Long SS, Prober CG, Fischer M, et al, eds. Principles and practice of pediatric infectious diseases. 6th edition. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2022:169-77.

31. Cao AM, Choy JP, Mohanakrishnan LN, et al. Chest radiographs for acute lower respiratory tract infections. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013 Dec 26;(12):CD009119.Full text  Abstract

32. Pereda MA, Chavez MA, Hooper-Miele CC, et al. Lung ultrasound for the diagnosis of pneumonia in children: a meta-analysis. Pediatrics. 2015 Apr;135(4):714-22.Full text  Abstract

33. Tsou PY, Chen KP, Wang YH, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of lung ultrasound performed by novice versus advanced sonographers for pneumonia in children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Acad Emerg Med. 2019 Sep;26(9):1074-88.Full text  Abstract

34. Myers AL, Hall M, Williams DJ, et al. Prevalence of bacteremia in hospitalized pediatric patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2013 Jul;32(7):736-40.Full text  Abstract

35. Neuman MI, Hall M, Lipsett SC, et al; Pediatric Research in Inpatient Settings Network. Utility of blood culture among children hospitalized with community-acquired pneumonia. Pediatrics. 2017 Sep;140(3):e20171013.Full text  Abstract

36. Clark TW, Lindsley K, Wigmosta TB, et al. Rapid multiplex PCR for respiratory viruses reduces time to result and improves clinical care: results of a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Infect. 2023 May;86(5):462-75.Full text  Abstract

37. Ouafi M, Dubos F, Engelmann I, et al. Rapid syndromic testing for respiratory viral infections in children attending the emergency department during COVID-19 pandemic in Lille, France, 2021-2022. J Clin Virol. 2022 Aug;153:105221.Full text  Abstract

38. Mattila S, Paalanne N, Honkila M, et al. Effect of point-of-care testing for respiratory pathogens on antibiotic use in children: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Netw Open. 2022 Jun 1;5(6):e2216162.Full text  Abstract

39. Spuesens EB, Fraaij PL, Visser EG, et al. Carriage of Mycoplasma pneumoniae in the upper respiratory tract of symptomatic and asymptomatic children: an observational study. PLoS Med. 2013;10(5):e1001444.Full text  Abstract

40. Stockmann C, Ampofo K, Killpack J, et al. Procalcitonin accurately identifies hospitalized children with low risk of bacterial community-acquired pneumonia. J Pediatric Infect Dis Soc. 2018 Feb 19;7(1):46-53.Full text  Abstract

41. Florin TA, Williams DJ. PRO: Procalcitonin has clinical utility in children with community-acquired pneumonia. JAC Antimicrob Resist. 2021 Dec;3(4):dlab158.Full text  Abstract

42. Tsou PY, Rafael J, Ma YK, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of procalcitonin for bacterial pneumonia in children - a systematic review and meta-analysis. Infect Dis (Lond). 2020 Oct;52(10):683-97. Abstract

43. Committee on Infectious Diseases, American Academy of Pediatrics. Pertussis. In: Kimberlin DW, Barnett ED, Lynfield R, et al, eds. The Red Book: 2021-2024 report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. 32nd edition. Itaska, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2021:578-89​.

44. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Whooping cough (pertussis): laboratory testing for pertussis. Apr 2024 [internet publication].Full text

45. Smith DK, McDermott AJ, Sullivan JF. Croup: diagnosis and management. Am Fam Physician. 2018 May 1;97(9):575-80.Full text  Abstract

46. Alberta Health Services. Provincial clinical knowledge topic: croup, pediatric - emergency and inpatient. V 1.0​. Alberta, Canada: Alberta Health Services; 2018.Full text

47. Denny FW, Murphy TF, Clyde WA Jr, et al. Croup: an 11-year study in a pediatric practice. Pediatrics. 1983 Jun;71(6):871-6. Abstract

48. Ralston SL, Lieberthal AS, Meissner HC, et al. Clinical practice guideline: the diagnosis, management, and prevention of bronchiolitis. Pediatrics. 2014;134(5):e1474-502. [Erratum in: Pediatrics. 2015 Oct;136(4):782.]Full text  Abstract

49. Righini CA, Morel N, Karkas A, et al. What is the diagnostic value of flexible bronchoscopy in the initial investigation of children with suspected foreign body aspiration? Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2007 Sep;71(9):1383-90. Abstract

50. National Asthma Council. Australian asthma handbook. Apr 2022 [internet publication]​.Full text

51. World Health Organization. Revised WHO classification and treatment of childhood pneumonia at health facilities: evidence summaries.​ Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2014.Full text

52. Lodha R, Kabra SK, Pandey RM. Antibiotics for community-acquired pneumonia in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013 Jun 4;(6):CD004874.Full text  Abstract

53. Rojas MX, Granados C. Oral antibiotics versus parenteral antibiotics for severe pneumonia in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006 Apr 19;(2):CD004979.Full text  Abstract

54. American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Infectious Diseases. Recommendations for prevention and control of influenza in children, 2023-2024. Pediatrics. 2023 Oct 1;152(4):e2023063773.Full text  Abstract

55. Atkinson M, Lakhanpaul M, Smyth A, et al. Comparison of oral amoxicillin and intravenous benzyl penicillin for community acquired pneumonia in children (PIVOT trial): a multicentre pragmatic randomised controlled equivalence trial. Thorax. 2007 Dec;62(12):1102-6.Full text  Abstract

56. Addo-Yobo E, Chisaka N, Hassan M, et al. Oral amoxicillin versus injectable penicillin for severe pneumonia in children aged 3 to 59 months: a randomised multicentre equivalency study. Lancet. 2004 Sep 25-Oct 1;364(9440):1141-8. Abstract

57. Hazir T, Fox LM, Nisar YB, et al; New Outpatient Short-Course Home Oral Therapy for Severe Pneumonia Study Group. Ambulatory short-course high-dose oral amoxicillin for treatment of severe pneumonia in children: a randomised equivalency trial. Lancet. 2008 Jan 5;371(9606):49-56. Abstract

58. Haider BA, Saeed MA, Bhutta ZA. Short-course versus long-course antibiotic therapy for non-severe community-acquired pneumonia in children aged 2 months to 59 months. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008 Apr 16;(2):CD005976.Full text  Abstract

59. Bielicki JA, Stöhr W, Barratt S, et al; PERUKI, GAPRUKI, and the CAP-IT Trial Group. Effect of amoxicillin dose and treatment duration on the need for antibiotic re-treatment in children with community-acquired pneumonia: the CAP-IT randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2021 Nov 2;326(17):1713-24.Full text  Abstract

60. Williams DJ, Creech CB, Walter EB, et al; The DMID 14-0079 Study Team. Short- vs standard-course outpatient antibiotic therapy for community-acquired pneumonia in children: the SCOUT-CAP randomized clinical trial. JAMA Pediatr. 2022 Mar 1;176(3):253-61.Full text  Abstract

61. Li Q, Zhou Q, Florez ID, et al. Short-course vs long-course antibiotic therapy for children with nonsevere community-acquired pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatr. 2022 Dec 1;176(12):1199-207.Full text  Abstract

62. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Influenza antiviral medications: summary for clinicians. ​Dec 2023 [internet publication].Full text

63. Jefferson T, Jones M, Doshi P, et al. Oseltamivir for influenza in adults and children: systematic review of clinical study reports and summary of regulatory comments. BMJ. 2014 Apr 9;348:g2545.Full text  Abstract

64. Bassett HK, Coon ER, Mansbach JM, et al. Misclassification of both influenza infection and oseltamivir exposure status in administrative data. JAMA Pediatr. 2024 Feb 1;178(2):201-3.Full text  Abstract

65. World Health Organization. Clinical practice guidelines for influenza. Sep 2024​ [internet publication].Full text

66. Rusu A, Munteanu AC, Arbănași EM, et al. Overview of side-effects of antibacterial fluoroquinolones: new drugs versus old drugs, a step forward in the safety profile? Pharmaceutics. 2023 Mar 1;15(3):804.Full text  Abstract

67. Wrotek A, Jackowska T. Hyponatremia in children hospitalized due to pneumonia. In: Pokorski M, ed. Neurobiology of respiration. Advances in experimental medicine and biology, 788. Dordrecht, Germany: Springer; 2013:103-8. Abstract

68. Feld LG, Neuspiel DR, Foster BA, et al; American Academy of Pediatrics Subcommittee on Fluid and Electrolyte Therapy. Clinical practice guideline: maintenance intravenous fluids in children. Pediatrics. 2018 Dec;142(6):e20183083.Full text  Abstract

69. Kushner LE, Nieves DJ, Osborne S, et al. Oral antibiotics for treating children with community-acquired pneumonia complicated by empyema. Clin Pediatr (Phila). 2019 Nov;58(13):1401-8. Abstract

70. Legg J, Rampton C. British Thoracic Society paediatric pneumonia audit. National audit period: 1 November 2016 - 31 January 2017. ​Jan 2018 [internet publication].Full text

71. Islam S, Calkins CM, Goldin AB, et al; APSA Outcomes and Clinical Trials Committee, 2011-2012. The diagnosis and management of empyema in children: a comprehensive review from the APSA Outcomes and Clinical Trials Committee. J Pediatr Surg. 2012 Nov;47(11):2101-10. Abstract

72. Balfour-Lynn IM, Abrahamson E, Cohen G, et al; Paediatric Pleural Diseases Subcommittee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. BTS guidelines for the management of pleural infection in children. Thorax. 2005 Feb;60 Suppl 1(suppl 1):i1-21.Full text  Abstract

73. Thomson AH, Hull J, Kumar MR, et al. Randomised trial of intrapleural urokinase in the treatment of childhood empyema. Thorax. 2002 Apr;57(4):343-7.Full text  Abstract

74. Pacilli M, Nataraja RM. Management of paediatric empyema by video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS) versus chest drain with fibrinolysis: systematic review and meta-analysis. Paediatr Respir Rev. 2019 Apr;30:42-8. Abstract

75. Randolph AG, McCulloh RJ. Pediatric sepsis: important considerations for diagnosing and managing severe infections in infants, children, and adolescents. Virulence. 2014 Jan 1;5(1):179-89.Full text  Abstract

76. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Suspected sepsis: recognition, diagnosis and early management. Mar 2024 [internet publication].Full text

77. Brierley J, Peters MJ. Distinct hemodynamic patterns of septic shock at presentation to pediatric intensive care. Pediatrics. 2008 Oct;122(4):752-9. Abstract

78. Weiss SL, Peters MJ, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign international guidelines for the management of septic shock and sepsis-associated organ dysfunction in children. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2020 Feb;21(2):e52-106.Full text  Abstract

79. Parikh DH, Crabbe D, Auldist A, et al., eds. Pediatric thoracic surgery. London: Springer; 2009​.

80. Matthay MA, Arabi Y, Arroliga AC, et al. A new global definition of acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2024 Jan 1;209(1):37-47.Full text  Abstract

81. Ranieri VM, Rubenfeld GD, Taylor Thompson B, et al; ARDS Definition Task Force. Acute respiratory distress syndrome: the Berlin Definition. JAMA. 2012 Jun 20;307(23):2526-33. Abstract

82. Dhawan A, Narang A, Singhi S. Hyponatraemia and the inappropriate ADH syndrome in pneumonia. Ann Trop Paediatr. 1992;12(4):455-62. Abstract

83. Gross P. Clinical management of SIADH. Ther Adv Endocrinol Metab. 2012 Apr;3(2):61-73.Full text  Abstract

84. Copelovitch L, Kaplan BS. Streptococcus pneumoniae-associated hemolytic uremic syndrome. Pediatr Nephrol. 2008 Nov;23(11):1951-6.Full text  Abstract

Use of this content is subject to our disclaimer