小结
正常成人每天尿蛋白排泄量平均为80mg/d,小于150mg/d可视为正常。
白蛋白大约占健康人群每天尿蛋白排泄的15%,还有其他血浆蛋白(例如,免疫球蛋白,β2微球蛋白)和Tamm-Horsfall蛋白占85%。
蛋白尿中蛋白含量各异,可为一过性或持续存在。[1]Viswanathan G, Upadhyay A. Assessment of proteinuria. Adv Chronic Kidney Dis. 2011 Jul;18(4):243-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21782130?tool=bestpractice.com [2]Montañés Bermúdez R, Gràcia García S, Pérez Surribas D, et al. Consensus document. Recommendations on assessing proteinuria during the diagnosis and follow-up of chronic kidney disease. Nefrologia. 2011;31(3):331-45. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21780317?tool=bestpractice.com
尿蛋白量排泄异常持续≥3 个月,伴有或不伴有肾小球滤过率 (GFR) 下降,是慢性肾脏病的诊断依据。[3]Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes. KDIGO 2012 clinical practice guideline for the evaluation and management of chronic kidney disease. Jan 2013 [internet publication]. https://kdigo.org/guidelines/ckd-evaluation-and-management [4]Levey AS, de Jong PE, Coresh J, et al. The definition, classification, and prognosis of chronic kidney disease: a KDIGO Controversies Conference report. Kidney Int. 2011 Jul;80(1):17-28. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21150873?tool=bestpractice.com
尿白蛋白检测是慢性肾病筛查的重要部分。在一般人群和慢性肾脏病患者中,蛋白尿是心血管疾病、终末期肾病、卒中和死亡的一个独立危险因素。[5]Chronic Kidney Disease Prognosis Consortium; Matsushita K, van der Velde M, Astor BC, et al. Association of estimated glomerular filtration rate and albuminuria with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in general population cohorts: a collaborative meta-analysis. Lancet. 2010 Jun 12;375(9731):2073-81. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20483451?tool=bestpractice.com [6]Astor BC, Matsushita K, Gansevoort RT, et al. Lower estimated glomerular filtration rate and higher albuminuria are associated with mortality and end-stage renal disease. A collaborative meta-analysis of kidney disease population cohorts. Kidney Int. 2011 Jun;79(12):1331-40. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21289598?tool=bestpractice.com [7]van der Velde M, Matsushita K, Coresh J, et al. Lower estimated glomerular filtration rate and higher albuminuria are associated with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality. A collaborative meta-analysis of high-risk population cohorts. Kidney Int. 2011 Jun;79(12):1341-52. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21307840?tool=bestpractice.com [8]Gansevoort RT, Matsushita K, van der Velde M, et al. Lower estimated GFR and higher albuminuria are associated with adverse kidney outcomes. A collaborative meta-analysis of general and high-risk population cohorts. Kidney Int. 2011 Jul;80(1):93-104. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21289597?tool=bestpractice.com [9]British Medical Journal. Low eGFR and high albuminuria predict end stage kidney disease and death at all ages. BMJ. 2012 Nov 7;345:e7478. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23135200?tool=bestpractice.com [10]Harrison TG, Tam-Tham H, Hemmelgarn BR, et al. Change in proteinuria or albuminuria as a surrogate for cardiovascular and other major clinical outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Can J Cardiol. 2019 Jan;35(1):77-91. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30595186?tool=bestpractice.com [11]Huang R, Chen X. Increased spot urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio and stroke incidence: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis. 2019 Oct;28(10):104260. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31350166?tool=bestpractice.com 危重症患者中蛋白尿与更高死亡率相关;[12]Han SS, Ahn SY, Ryu J, et al. Proteinuria and hematuria are associated with acute kidney injury and mortality in critically ill patients: a retrospective observational study. BMC Nephrol. 2014 Jun 18;15:93. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4072664 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24942179?tool=bestpractice.com [13]Lin LY, Jenq CC, Liu CS, et al. Proteinuria can predict short-term prognosis in critically ill cirrhotic patients. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2014 Apr;48(4):377-82. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24440941?tool=bestpractice.com 肾脏移植后蛋白尿的严重程度对移植物和患者存活率具有预测价值。[14]Borrego J, Mazuecos A, Gentil MA, et al. Proteinuria as a predictive factor in the evolution of kidney transplantation. Transplant Proc. 2013;45(10):3627-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24314978?tool=bestpractice.com
药物治疗后蛋白尿的减少可用作针对慢性肾病和许多急性肾小球疾病管理的一项替代标志,且与肾脏结局的改善有关。[15]Lewis EJ, Hunsicker LG, Bain RP, et al. The effect of angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibition on diabetic nephropathy. N Engl J Med. 1993 Nov 11;329(20):1456-62. http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM199311113292004#t=article http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8413456?tool=bestpractice.com [16]The GISEN Group. Randomised placebo-controlled trial of effect of ramipril on decline in glomerular filtration rate and risk of terminal renal failure in proteinuric, non-diabetic nephropathy. Lancet. 1997 Jun 28;349(9069):1857-63. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9217756?tool=bestpractice.com [17]Brenner BM, Cooper ME, de Zeeuw D, et al. Effects of losartan on renal and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes and nephropathy. N Engl J Med. 2001 Sep 20;345(12):861-9. http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa011161#t=article http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11565518?tool=bestpractice.com [18]Lewis EJ, Hunsicker LG, Clarke WR, et al. Renoprotective effect of the angiotensin-receptor antagonist irbesartan in patients with nephropathy due to type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2001 Sep 20;345(12):851-60. http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa011303#t=article http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11565517?tool=bestpractice.com [19]Parving HH, Lehnert H, Bröchner-Mortensen J, et al; Irbesartan in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes and Microalbuminuria Study Group. The effect of irbesartan on the development of diabetic nephropathy in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2001 Sep 20;345(12):870-8. http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa011489#t=article http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11565519?tool=bestpractice.com [20]Wright JT Jr, Bakris G, Greene T, et al. Effect of blood pressure lowering and antihypertensive drug class on progression of hypertensive kidney disease: results from the AASK trial. JAMA. 2002 Nov 20;288(19):2421-31. http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/288/19/2421 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12435255?tool=bestpractice.com [21]Inker LA, Levey AS, Pandya K, et al. Early change in proteinuria as a surrogate end point for kidney disease progression: an individual patient meta-analysis. Am J Kidney Dis. 2014 Jul;64(1):74-85. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24787763?tool=bestpractice.com
蛋白尿定义
可测量尿蛋白总量或尿白蛋白。尿白蛋白测量值在与慢性肾脏病进展和心血管事件风险的相关性方面得到了更好的验证。
白蛋白尿
白蛋白尿分级如下:[3]Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes. KDIGO 2012 clinical practice guideline for the evaluation and management of chronic kidney disease. Jan 2013 [internet publication]. https://kdigo.org/guidelines/ckd-evaluation-and-management
A1(正常至轻度白蛋白尿)
白蛋白排泄率:<30 mg/24 小时。
白蛋白/肌酐比值(albumin-to-creatinine ratio, ACR):<30 mg/g。
A2(中度白蛋白尿)
白蛋白排泄率:30-300 mg/24 小时。
白蛋白/肌酐比值(albumin-to-creatinine ratio, ACR):30-300 mg/g。
与进行性肾病和心血管事件风险增加相关。
A3(重度白蛋白尿)
白蛋白排泄率:>300 mg/24 小时。
白蛋白/肌酐比值(albumin-to-creatinine ratio, ACR):>300 mg/g。
尿蛋白含量越高,肾脏存活率越低。这些患者需转诊给肾科专科医师。
肾病范围蛋白尿
尿蛋白总量:≥3.5g/d。
肾病综合征是指存在肾病范围蛋白尿、水肿、低白蛋白血症(<3.0 g/dL)和高脂血症。
肾小球性蛋白尿
尿蛋白总量:1-20 g/d。
蛋白质(主要是白蛋白)通过肾小球毛细血管进入尿液。
肾小管性蛋白尿
尿蛋白总量:<2 g/d。
小分子量蛋白(例如视黄醇结合蛋白、α2-微球蛋白、β2 微球蛋白)进入尿液。
溢出性蛋白尿
尿蛋白总量:多达 20 g/d。
过量产生的小分子蛋白(例如肌球蛋白、轻链蛋白)通过肾脏排泄,使尿液中蛋白含量上升。
尿液分析试纸是一种有用的蛋白尿半定量筛查工具。1+ 代表尿蛋白 30 mg/dL,2+ 代表 100 mg/dL,3+ 代表 300 mg/dL。过度稀释的尿液可得出假阴性结果。过度浓缩尿液、碱性尿液、脓液、阴道分泌物或精液都可能导致假阳性结果。[22]Carroll MF, Temte JL. Proteinuria in adults: a diagnostic approach. Am Fam Physician. 2000 Sep 15;62(6):1333-40. https://www.aafp.org/afp/2000/0915/p1333.html http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11011862?tool=bestpractice.com 将尿蛋白测量标准化为尿液中的肌酐量有助于避免稀释或浓缩尿液样本引入的误差。
对于儿童和青少年,不应使用试纸条测定蛋白尿(因为此类检测对排除蛋白尿 [主要目标] 的作用不及确诊蛋白尿)。[23]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Chronic kidney disease in adults: assessment and management. Jan 2021 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng203
流行病学
蛋白尿常见,且其发生率随着肾脏病的进展而增加。有证据表明,与白种人相比,黑种人出现尿白蛋白中度升高和重度升高的频率均更高。[24]Afkarian M, Zelnick LR, Hall YN, et al. Clinical manifestations of kidney disease among US adults with diabetes, 1988-2014. JAMA. 2016 Aug 9;316(6):602-10. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5444809 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27532915?tool=bestpractice.com
随着 GFR 从>90 mL/(min·1.73 m²) 下降到 15-59 mL/(min·1.73 m²),尿白蛋白中度升高(ACR<300 mg/g)的患病率从 6.0% 升至 23.2%,尿白蛋白重度升高(ACR>300 mg/g)的患病率从 0.6% 升至 8.6%。[25]Astor BC, Hallan SI, Miller ER 3rd, et al. Glomerular filtration rate, albuminuria, and risk of cardiovascular and all-cause mortality in the US population. Am J Epidemiol. 2008 May 15;167(10):1226-34. http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/167/10/1226 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18385206?tool=bestpractice.com 还有证据表明中度白蛋白尿发生率可随体重指数(body mass index, BMI)的增加而上升。英国谢菲尔德大学的一项人口筛查项目发现白蛋白尿发生率从 BMI<25 人群中的 3.1% 增加到 BMI>30 人群中的 27.2%。[26]Kawar B, Bello AK, El Nahas AM. High prevalence of microalbuminuria in the overweight and obese population: data from a UK population screening programme. Nephron Clin Pract. 2009;112(3):c205-12. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19451722?tool=bestpractice.com
检测:半定量检测
半定量尿液试纸可报告处在微量白蛋白尿范围的白蛋白/肌酐比值和总蛋白/肌酐比值。
根据尿液肌酐含量对尿蛋白检测值进行标准化,有助于避免稀释或浓缩尿液样本造成的误差。如果在试纸条上偶然发现不明原因的蛋白尿,应测定 eGFR 肌酐和 ACR 以检查有无 CKD。[23]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Chronic kidney disease in adults: assessment and management. Jan 2021 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng203
检测总蛋白含量使得还能够发现肾小管性和溢出性蛋白尿。据报告,这些半定量试纸的灵敏度是 80% 至 97%,特异度为 33% 至 80%。[27]Comper WD, Osicka TM. Detection of urinary albumin. Adv Chronic Kidney Dis. 2005 Apr;12(2):170-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15822052?tool=bestpractice.com
检测:定量检测
采用尿白蛋白浓度或尿白蛋白/肌酐比值的白蛋白定量检测,对识别白蛋白尿具有敏感性和特异性。[28]McTaggart MP, Newall RG, Hirst JA, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of point-of-care tests for detecting albuminuria: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. 2014 Apr 15;160(8):550-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24733196?tool=bestpractice.com [29]Wu HY, Peng YS, Chiang CK, et al. Diagnostic performance of random urine samples using albumin concentration vs ratio of albumin to creatinine for microalbuminuria screening in patients with diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Intern Med. 2014 Jul;174(7):1108-15. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24798807?tool=bestpractice.com
检测尿白蛋白浓度而不检测尿肌酐浓度的花费更少,对于糖尿病患者,作为一种筛查方法,与白蛋白肌酐比值具有类似的敏感性和特异性。[29]Wu HY, Peng YS, Chiang CK, et al. Diagnostic performance of random urine samples using albumin concentration vs ratio of albumin to creatinine for microalbuminuria screening in patients with diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Intern Med. 2014 Jul;174(7):1108-15. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24798807?tool=bestpractice.com
以往曾使用 24 小时尿液收集法,但这种方法易出现收集量过多或过少的偏差。此外,收集 24 小时尿液对患者而言比较麻烦。报告以 24 小时尿液肌酐进行标准化的 24 小时尿蛋白(g 蛋白/g 肌酐)有助于校正收集过程中产生的偏差。
女性尿肌酐正常范围为 15-20 mg/kg,男性为 20-25 mg/kg
或者尿肌酐排泄量的估值(g)=(140-年龄)×体重(kg)/5000。对于女性,计算结果需乘以 0.85。[30]Ginsberg JM, Chang BS, Matarese RA, et al. Use of single voided urine samples to estimate quantitative proteinuria. N Engl J Med. 1983 Dec 22;309(25):1543-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6656849?tool=bestpractice.com
更常见的情况是,使用随机尿的尿蛋白/肌酐比值或尿白蛋白/肌酐比值来分别估计 24 小时尿蛋白排泄量和 24 小时尿白蛋白排泄量。[31]Valdés E, Sepúlveda-Martínez Á, Tong A, et al. Assessment of protein:creatinine ratio versus 24-hour urine protein in the diagnosis of preeclampsia. Gynecol Obstet Invest. 2016;81(1):78-83. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26045043?tool=bestpractice.com
在检测低水平蛋白尿时,白蛋白肌酐比值比蛋白肌酐比值更为敏感。[23]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Chronic kidney disease in adults: assessment and management. Jan 2021 [internet publication]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng203
晨尿标本可以更准确的评估 24 小时尿蛋白排泌量,无法采集晨尿时,可采用随机尿标本。[3]Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes. KDIGO 2012 clinical practice guideline for the evaluation and management of chronic kidney disease. Jan 2013 [internet publication]. https://kdigo.org/guidelines/ckd-evaluation-and-management [30]Ginsberg JM, Chang BS, Matarese RA, et al. Use of single voided urine samples to estimate quantitative proteinuria. N Engl J Med. 1983 Dec 22;309(25):1543-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6656849?tool=bestpractice.com [32]Johnson DW, Jones GR, Mathew TH, et al. Chronic kidney disease and measurement of albuminuria or proteinuria: a position statement. Med J Aust. 2012 Aug 20;197(4):224-5. https://www.mja.com.au/journal/2012/197/4/chronic-kidney-disease-and-measurement-albuminuria-or-proteinuria-position http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22900872?tool=bestpractice.com
由于昼夜变化,如果是用于长期随访患者,最好每天在同一时间采集随机尿样。此外,随机尿样与 24 小时蛋白排泄量的相关性的稳健度不及与肾病范围蛋白尿的相关性。尿蛋白>300 mg 的孕妇的随机尿样尿蛋白肌酐比值更加缺乏准确性。[33]Papanna R, Mann LK, Kouides RW, et al. Protein/creatinine ratio in preeclampsia: a systematic review. Obstet Gynecol. 2008 Jul;112(1):135-44. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18591319?tool=bestpractice.com [34]Côté AM, Brown MA, Lam E, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of urinary spot protein:creatinine ratio for proteinuria in hypertensive pregnant women: systematic review. BMJ. 2008 May 3;336(7651):1003-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2364863 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18403498?tool=bestpractice.com
每 1.73 m² 体表面积的肌酐排泄量大致是 1 g。因此,一个体型适中者如果尿蛋白肌酐比值为 1 g 尿蛋白/g 肌酐,相当于 24 小时排泄了 1 g 尿蛋白。重要的是要认识到,在 24 小时排泄 2 g 肌酐的肌肉发达者中,2.5 g 蛋白质/g 肌酐的比率实际上可能代表着 5 g/日的肾病范围蛋白尿。同样,一名老年且身体虚弱的女性可能每天排泄 <1 g 肌酐,在这种情况下,随机尿样的尿蛋白肌酐比值将高估其蛋白尿状况。
白蛋白尿对慢性肾病预后的影响
白蛋白尿是慢性肾病进展的一项独立危险因素。[35]Chen TK, Knicely DH, Grams ME. Chronic kidney disease diagnosis and management: a review. JAMA. 2019 Oct 1;322(13):1294-304. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7015670 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31573641?tool=bestpractice.com 与轻度 GFR 下降伴正常白蛋白尿相比,正常 GFR 伴大量蛋白尿时,出现慢性肾病进展的风险更高。
对于晚期 CKD 患者,蛋白尿是终末期肾病的最强预测指标。[36]Raman M, Green D, Middleton RJ, et al. Older people with chronic kidney disease: definition, and influence of biomarkers and medications upon cardiovascular and renal outcomes. J Ren Care. 2016 Sep;42(3):150-61. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27364740?tool=bestpractice.com [37]Grams ME, Li L, Greene TH, et al. Estimating time to ESRD using kidney failure risk equations: results from the African American Study of Kidney Disease and Hypertension (AASK). Am J Kidney Dis. 2015 Mar;65(3):394-402. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25441435?tool=bestpractice.com 此外,ACR 的变化与发生终末期肾病的风险相关。[38]Coresh J, Heerspink HJL, Sang Y, et al. Change in albuminuria and subsequent risk of end-stage kidney disease: an individual participant-level consortium meta-analysis of observational studies. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2019 Feb;7(2):115-127. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6379893 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30635225?tool=bestpractice.com [39]Heerspink HJL, Greene T, Tighiouart H, et al. Change in albuminuria as a surrogate endpoint for progression of kidney disease: a meta-analysis of treatment effects in randomised clinical trials. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2019 Feb;7(2):128-139. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30635226?tool=bestpractice.com
鉴别诊断
常见
- 发热
- 重体力活动
- 泌尿道感染
- 泌尿系统出血
- 直立性蛋白尿
- 轻微改变型肾病
- 局灶节段性肾小球硬化症
- 膜性肾病
- 膜增生性肾小球肾炎
- IgA 肾病
- 系统性红斑狼疮
- 感染后肾小球肾炎
- 急性肾小管损伤
- 间质性肾炎
- 尿路梗阻
- 代谢综合征
- 糖尿病肾病
- 高血压
- 中-小血管炎
- 横纹肌溶解症(肌红蛋白尿)
不常见
- 妊娠
- 淀粉样变性
- 轻链-重链沉积病
- 纤维样和免疫触须样肾小球病
- 抗肾小球基底膜(抗 GBM)病(Goodpasture 综合征)
- Fanconi 综合征
- 囊性肾病
- 高钙尿
- Dent 病
- 马兜铃酸肾病
- 轻链管型肾病
- Fabry 病
- 溶血性尿毒症综合征 (HUS)
- 血栓性血小板减少性紫癜 (TTP)
- 硬皮病肾危象
- 重金属中毒
- 特发性结节性肾小球硬化
- 单克隆 IgG 沉积物增殖性肾小球肾炎
- 多肌炎
- 肾静脉血栓
撰稿人
作者
Sana Waheed, MD
Staff Nephrologist
Piedmont Nephrology and Internal Medicine
Atlanta
GA
利益声明
SW declares that she has no competing interests.
鸣谢
Dr Sana Waheed would like to gratefully acknowledge Dr Derek M. Fine and Dr C. John Sperati, previous contributors to this topic.
利益声明
DMF is an author of a reference cited in this topic. CJS declares that he has no competing interests.
同行评议者
Mark Perazella, MD
Associate Professor
Yale University School of Medicine
New Haven
CT
利益声明
MP declares that he has no competing interests.
Arif Showkat, MD, FASN
Assistant Professor
Division of Nephrology
University of Tennessee
Memphis
TN
利益声明
AS declares that he has no competing interests.
Guy Neild, MD, FRCP, FRCPath
Professor of Nephrology
Institute of Urology and Nephrology
University College London
London
UK
利益声明
GN declares that he has no competing interests.
Frederick Tam, MBBS
Senior Lecturer in Renal Medicine
Division of Medicine
Imperial College London
UK
利益声明
FT has received travelling grants from Amgen, MSD, Novartis, and Roche to attend International Nephrology conferences. He has also received research grants from Wellcome Trust, Medical Research Council UK, Baxter Biosciences, and Roche Palo Alto. He has also provided consultancy to research work with GE Healthcare and Baxter Biosciences.
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