小结
味道(味觉)来自于从口腔和口咽处接收的感觉信息,是经口摄入伴随的感觉。味觉基本上分为五种:甜、苦、咸、酸、鲜。[1]Hsieh JW, Daskalou D, Macario S, et al. How to manage taste disorders. Curr Otorhinolaryngol Rep. 2022;10(4):385-92. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9490708 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36158900?tool=bestpractice.com 其中鲜味(愉悦、良好、合意的味道)就是谷氨酸钠的味道;类似于鸡汤的味道。[2]Chaudhari N, Landin AM, Roper SD. A metabotropic glutamate receptor variant functions as a taste receptor. Nat Neurosci. 2000 Feb;3(2):113-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10649565?tool=bestpractice.com
现已发现其他味觉功能,其中脂肪“味道”可能是由感受器换能和非特异性跨细胞膜转运所介导,以及由感觉传入纤维介导的辛辣“感觉”(例如辣椒碱、生姜)。[3]Roper SD, Chaudhari N. Taste buds: cells, signals and synapses. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2017 Aug;18(8):485-97. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5958546 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28655883?tool=bestpractice.com 另外,还有文献描述了一种产生“浓厚味”(kokumi,可增强其他味觉)的受体,以及一种“水”受体。[4]Barlow LA. The sense of taste: development, regeneration, and dysfunction. WIREs Mech Dis. 2022 May;14(3):e1547. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34850604?tool=bestpractice.com [5]Ahmad R, Dalziel JE. G protein-coupled receptors in taste physiology and pharmacology. Front Pharmacol. 2020 Nov 30;11:587664. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fphar.2020.587664/full http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33390961?tool=bestpractice.com [6]Leach K, Hannan FM, Josephs TM, et al. International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. CVIII. Calcium-sensing receptor nomenclature, pharmacology, and function. Pharmacol Rev. 2020 Jul;72(3):558-604. https://pharmrev.aspetjournals.org/content/72/3/558.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32467152?tool=bestpractice.com [7]Rhyu MR, Song AY, Kim EY, et al. Kokumi taste active peptides modulate salt and umami taste. Nutrients. 2020 Apr 24;12(4):1198. https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/12/4/1198 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32344605?tool=bestpractice.com
然而,通常所说的“味觉”往往是指“味道”,味道是进食时多种(非味觉)化学感觉传入纤维的综合感知,包括滋味、香料、口感和温度(均由三叉神经即第五颅神经介导)、视觉以及重要的嗅觉(更准确地说,是鼻后嗅觉)。[1]Hsieh JW, Daskalou D, Macario S, et al. How to manage taste disorders. Curr Otorhinolaryngol Rep. 2022;10(4):385-92. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9490708 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36158900?tool=bestpractice.com [8]Iwata S, Yoshida R, Ninomiya Y. Taste transductions in taste receptor cells: basic tastes and moreover. Curr Pharm Des. 2014;20(16):2684-92. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23886388?tool=bestpractice.com [9]Rolls ET. The texture and taste of food in the brain. J Texture Stud. 2020 Feb;51(1):23-44. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31598975?tool=bestpractice.com 因此,当患者主诉味觉缺失时并不一定总是存在基础病变。必须进行味觉测试,以排除临床上表现为味觉问题的原发性嗅觉或三叉神经病变。
根据味觉试纸测试结果,5.3% 被认为健康的人存在味觉减退,但仅极少数人完全味觉缺失。[10]Welge-Lüssen A, Dörig P, Wolfensberger M, et al. A study about the frequency of taste disorders. J Neurol. 2011 Mar;258(3):386-92. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20886348?tool=bestpractice.com 对味觉功能障碍患者的评估包括:既往史(包括病史、药物摄入及饮食/营养元素)、详细的临床查体(包括口腔检查)以及用于确定基础病因的检查。[1]Hsieh JW, Daskalou D, Macario S, et al. How to manage taste disorders. Curr Otorhinolaryngol Rep. 2022;10(4):385-92. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9490708 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36158900?tool=bestpractice.com [11]Wrobel BB, Leopold DA. Clinical assessment of patients with smell and taste disorders. Otolaryngol Clin North Am. 2004 Dec;37(6):1127-42. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S003066650400132X?via%3Dihub http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15563906?tool=bestpractice.com
应用解剖和生理
味觉受体细胞位于味蕾中,主要存在于口腔内。味觉系统高度冗余,沿着多条颅神经呈双侧分布和双侧传递。人体存在四种舌乳头,即菌状乳头、叶状乳头、轮廓乳头及丝状乳头。除了丝状乳头,其余三种均有味蕾。[12]Doyle ME, Premathilake HU, Yao Q, et al. Physiology of the tongue with emphasis on taste transduction. Physiol Rev. 2023 Apr 1;103(2):1193-246. https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/physrev.00012.2022 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36422992?tool=bestpractice.com
味觉是一个神经过程,味觉物质被递送到味蕾上的神经上皮受体。[13]Thomas DC, Chablani D, Parekh S, et al. Dysgeusia: a review in the context of COVID-19. J Am Dent Assoc. 2022 Mar;153(3):251-64. https://jada.ada.org/article/S0002-8177(21)00519-5/fulltext http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34799014?tool=bestpractice.com
G 蛋白偶联受体在三种类型的味觉受体细胞中表达。[3]Roper SD, Chaudhari N. Taste buds: cells, signals and synapses. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2017 Aug;18(8):485-97. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5958546 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28655883?tool=bestpractice.com [4]Barlow LA. The sense of taste: development, regeneration, and dysfunction. WIREs Mech Dis. 2022 May;14(3):e1547. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34850604?tool=bestpractice.com [5]Ahmad R, Dalziel JE. G protein-coupled receptors in taste physiology and pharmacology. Front Pharmacol. 2020 Nov 30;11:587664. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fphar.2020.587664/full http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33390961?tool=bestpractice.com
Ⅰ 型胶质样支持细胞:功能可能具有异质性;识别低盐味
Ⅱ 型:识别甜味、鲜味和苦味
Ⅲ 型:识别酸味。
浓厚味(增强连续性、浓厚度和口感)由另一种 G 蛋白偶联受体钙敏感受体介导。[5]Ahmad R, Dalziel JE. G protein-coupled receptors in taste physiology and pharmacology. Front Pharmacol. 2020 Nov 30;11:587664. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fphar.2020.587664/full http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33390961?tool=bestpractice.com [7]Rhyu MR, Song AY, Kim EY, et al. Kokumi taste active peptides modulate salt and umami taste. Nutrients. 2020 Apr 24;12(4):1198. https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/12/4/1198 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32344605?tool=bestpractice.com
游离脂肪酸受体是口腔和胃肠道中的一种 G 蛋白偶联受体,在能量调节和食欲以及味道/口感偏好中起作用。[14]Hara T, Kimura I, Inoue D, et al. Free fatty acid receptors and their role in regulation of energy metabolism. Rev Physiol Biochem Pharmacol. 2013;164:77-116. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23625068?tool=bestpractice.com
味觉传入纤维从味蕾一直延伸至味觉通路。 舌前三分之二由鼓索神经支配,鼓索神经是面神经(第七颅神经)的分支。 来自鼓索神经的味觉纤维经由中间神经(第七颅神经分支)进入脑干。 在其远端,味觉纤维和鼓索神经并入舌神经,舌神经是三叉神经(第五对颅神经)下颌支的一部分。 下颌骨后手术操作可能会损伤舌神经,导致暂时性或永久性味觉丧失。 舌后三分之一由舌咽神经(第九颅神经)舌支支配,舌根部及会厌由迷走神经(第十颅神经)支配。 味觉纤维经颅神经传递最终到达脑干孤束核。离开 NTS 后,味觉纤维仍沿同侧走行,部分在中脑水平交叉到对侧,投射至丘脑和岛叶。 通路的任何部位病变均可导致味觉变化。 味觉感受器及嗅觉感受器神经元是可再生的。
虽然人们可能一般认为味觉问题与食物的味道有关,但有些患者表示未进食时口中出现味觉变化。在某些有味觉方面主诉的病例中,患者对食物的味觉正常,可能掩盖未进食时的味觉异常。这些情况可能会被报告为味觉幻觉。重要的是鉴别问题的性质。
人体的味觉感受器至少可以识别 5 种基本味质(甜、酸、咸、苦和鲜味)。当前理论认为整个舌体均可感知所有味质。[13]Thomas DC, Chablani D, Parekh S, et al. Dysgeusia: a review in the context of COVID-19. J Am Dent Assoc. 2022 Mar;153(3):251-64. https://jada.ada.org/article/S0002-8177(21)00519-5/fulltext http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34799014?tool=bestpractice.com 不过有些区域,如舌尖及舌根部,存在更高的整体味觉敏感度。有数据表明,如同存在与听觉有关的皮质频率拓扑(tonotopy)一样,可能存在味觉拓扑(gustotopy)。[15]Chen X, Gabitto M, Peng Y, et al. A gustotopic map of taste qualities in the mammalian brain. Science. 2011 Sep;333(6047):1262-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3523322 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21885776?tool=bestpractice.com 然而,在人类中的研究得出结论,味觉识别涉及时间编码,没有明确且有味觉特异性的“热点”。[16]Roper SD. Encoding taste: From receptors to perception. Handb Exp Pharmacol. 2022;275:53-90. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9744258 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34796381?tool=bestpractice.com
唾液
味觉是唾液分泌的重要刺激,反之亦然,唾液对味觉感知而言不可或缺,进食时不会被水的摄入所取代。唾液是一种天然的口腔溶剂,可溶解食物成分,使其抵达味觉感受器。[17]Matsuo R. Role of saliva in the maintenance of taste sensitivity. Crit Rev Oral Biol Med. 2000;11(2):216-29. http://cro.sagepub.com/content/11/2/216.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12002816?tool=bestpractice.com 味觉也受唾液成分影响,因为特定味质必须高于正常唾液浓度才能被感知。唾液中的表皮生长因子和神经生长因子可能在味觉功能中发挥一定作用。因此,唾液的质和量均可影响味觉。[18]Bardow A, Nyvad B, Nauntofte B. Relationships between medication intake, complaints of dry mouth, salivary flow rate and composition, and the rate of tooth demineralization in situ. Arch Oral Biol. 2001 May;46(5):413-23. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11286806?tool=bestpractice.com 三对大唾液腺以及分布在口腔和咽黏膜中的数百个小腺体可分泌唾液,其中含多种矿物质、酶和免疫球蛋白(IgA)。该系统受交感神经和副交感自主神经通路调节。多种生理性、病理性和医源性病变过程可能会干扰唾液分泌,从而导致味觉障碍。
味觉改变原因
局部病因可能是由局部/区域疾病导致的,包括口腔卫生不佳、口腔/牙科/鼻窦疾病、口腔感染(例如念珠菌病)、口咽疾病、饮食和烟草使用。
味觉缺失的类型
味觉障碍有多种分类方法。临床实践中最常用的方法是区分定性和定量味觉障碍,方法如下:[1]Hsieh JW, Daskalou D, Macario S, et al. How to manage taste disorders. Curr Otorhinolaryngol Rep. 2022;10(4):385-92. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9490708 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36158900?tool=bestpractice.com
味觉障碍:用于描述各种类型味觉失调的常用术语
味觉倒错:是一种味觉性质改变,是指对原有味觉的扭曲(如在饮食时感到口里有苦味、金属味等)
幻味:是一种味觉性质改变,是指在无诱发因素存在时,出现持久或暂时性的味觉倒错。常见主诉包括:金属味、持久的苦味、酸味、咸味甚至甜味。
味觉减退:是一种量变,是指由于味觉功能障碍导致的味觉能力部分丧失。
味觉丧失:是一种量变,是指由于味觉功能障碍导致味觉能力完全丧失。
除了味觉丧失,其他几种均可受到饮食因素影响。 这些味觉质或量的失调可单独发生也可同时存在(如一味觉倒错的患者可同时存在味觉功能障碍)。
味觉障碍”一词常常被混淆。许多文献用它来描述:味觉质变、量变及味觉失调等。
也有一些基于病变解剖位置的分类(如周围神经病变、脑干病变、丘脑病变等)
流行病学
味觉障碍的流行病学尚不明确。文献报道,味觉障碍的患病率在 0.6%-20% 之间。[13]Thomas DC, Chablani D, Parekh S, et al. Dysgeusia: a review in the context of COVID-19. J Am Dent Assoc. 2022 Mar;153(3):251-64. https://jada.ada.org/article/S0002-8177(21)00519-5/fulltext http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34799014?tool=bestpractice.com [19]Liu G, Zong G, Doty RL, et al. Prevalence and risk factors of taste and smell impairment in a nationwide representative sample of the US population: a cross-sectional study. BMJ Open. 2016 Nov 9;6(11):e013246. https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/6/11/e013246.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28157672?tool=bestpractice.com [20]Vennemann MM, Hummel T, Berger K. The association between smoking and smell and taste impairment in the general population. J Neurol. 2008 Aug;255(8):1121-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18677645?tool=bestpractice.com [21]Hoffman HJ, Ishii EK, MacTurk RH. Age-related changes in the prevalence of smell/taste problems among the United States adult population. Results of the 1994 disability supplement to the National Health Interview Survey (NHIS). Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1998 Nov 30;855:716-22. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9929676?tool=bestpractice.com
味觉障碍可能被患者甚至临床医生忽视(如在脑卒中时)。如未检测味觉情况,可能无法发现异常。[22]Heckmann JG, Stössel C, Lang CJ, et al. Taste disorders in acute stroke: a prospective observational study on taste disorders in 102 stroke patients. Stroke. 2005 Aug;36(8):1690-4. http://stroke.ahajournals.org/content/36/8/1690.full http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16002758?tool=bestpractice.com 味觉相关的生理细节及认识度的缺失(如将触觉误认为味觉),提示味觉损害的报告率是偏低的。 有数据表明,约5%的普通人群存在味觉功能低下,但是由于自身可耐受或者认识不够而被忽视。[10]Welge-Lüssen A, Dörig P, Wolfensberger M, et al. A study about the frequency of taste disorders. J Neurol. 2011 Mar;258(3):386-92. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20886348?tool=bestpractice.com 味觉改变必然主要来自于患者报告,而这可能低估了味觉改变的流行病学数据。味觉改变与衰老有关。[23]Barragán R, Coltell O, Portolés O, et al. Bitter, sweet, salty, sour and umami taste perception decreases with age: sex-specific analysis, modulation by genetic variants and taste-preference associations in 18 to 80 year-old subjects. Nutrients. 2018 Oct 18;10(10):1539. https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/10/10/1539 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30340375?tool=bestpractice.com [24]Sergi G, Bano G, Pizzato S, et al. Taste loss in the elderly: possible implications for dietary habits. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2017 Nov 22;57(17):3684-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27129026?tool=bestpractice.com
在 Covid-19 大流行期间,全球有 40%-50% 的人报告了嗅觉和味觉的改变,这些症状通常是 SARS-CoV-2 感染的最强预测指标。[25]Tan BKJ, Han R, Zhao JJ, et al. Prognosis and persistence of smell and taste dysfunction in patients with covid-19: meta-analysis with parametric cure modelling of recovery curves. BMJ. 2022 Jul 27;378:e069503. https://www.bmj.com/content/378/bmj-2021-069503.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35896188?tool=bestpractice.com 在一项荟萃分析中,约有 5% 的患者出现持续的味觉功能障碍。[25]Tan BKJ, Han R, Zhao JJ, et al. Prognosis and persistence of smell and taste dysfunction in patients with covid-19: meta-analysis with parametric cure modelling of recovery curves. BMJ. 2022 Jul 27;378:e069503. https://www.bmj.com/content/378/bmj-2021-069503.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35896188?tool=bestpractice.com
味觉障碍在头颈癌患者中十分常见,超过 70% 的患者报告味觉丧失。[26]Togni L, Mascitti M, Vignigni A, et al. Treatment-related dysgeusia in oral and oropharyngeal cancer: a comprehensive review. Nutrients. 2021 Sep 23;13(10):3325 https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/13/10/3325 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34684326?tool=bestpractice.com 某些患者无法完全康复,在接受放疗的患者中,与其他味质相比,鲜味需要更长的时间才能恢复。[27]Gunn L, Gilbert J, Nenclares P, et al. Taste dysfunction following radiotherapy to the head and neck: a systematic review. Radiother Oncol. 2021 Apr;157:130-40. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33545253?tool=bestpractice.com
味觉改变可发生在实体肿瘤或干细胞移植患者接受局部放疗,以及全身性化疗和靶向治疗时。[28]Buttiron Webber T, Briata IM, DeCensi A, et al. Taste and smell disorders in cancer treatment: results from an integrative rapid systematic review. Int J Mol Sci. 2023 Jan 28;24(3):2538. https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/24/3/2538 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36768861?tool=bestpractice.com [29]Pugnaloni S, Vignini A, Borroni F, et al. Modifications of taste sensitivity in cancer patients: a method for the evaluations of dysgeusia. Support Care Cancer. 2020 Mar;28(3):1173-81. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31203507?tool=bestpractice.com [30]Scordo M, Shah GL, Adintori PA, et al. A prospective study of dysgeusia and related symptoms in patients with multiple myeloma after autologous hematopoietic cell transplantation. Cancer. 2022 Nov 1;128(21):3850-9. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10010839 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36041227?tool=bestpractice.com 接受全身性化疗的患者中有近 60% 会报告出现一定程度的味觉障碍,与细胞毒性药物的种类和存在口腔黏膜炎有关。[31]Okada N, Hanafusa T, Abe S, et al. Evaluation of the risk factors associated with high-dose chemotherapy-induced dysgeusia in patients undergoing autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: possible usefulness of cryotherapy in dysgeusia prevention. Support Care Cancer. 2016 Sep;24(9):3979-85. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27129837?tool=bestpractice.com 全身性化疗也会导致味觉改变,这种改变通常在治疗停止后可逆转,可能与药物直接毒性以及药物可被分泌入唾液有关。[30]Scordo M, Shah GL, Adintori PA, et al. A prospective study of dysgeusia and related symptoms in patients with multiple myeloma after autologous hematopoietic cell transplantation. Cancer. 2022 Nov 1;128(21):3850-9. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10010839 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36041227?tool=bestpractice.com [32]Steinbach S, Hummel T, Böhner C, et al. Qualitative and quantitative assessment of taste and smell changes in patients undergoing chemotherapy for breast cancer or gynecologic malignancies. J Clin Oncol. 2009 Apr;27(11):1899-905. http://jco.ascopubs.org/content/27/11/1899.long http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19289621?tool=bestpractice.com 这些患者对甜和咸的感知改变可能会一直持续到癌症治疗停止后长达 3 年。[33]Boer CC, Correa ME, Miranda EC, et al. Taste disorders and oral evaluation in patients undergoing allogeneic hematopoietic SCT. Bone Marrow Transplant. 2010 Apr;45(4):705-11. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19767788?tool=bestpractice.com
鉴别诊断
常见
- 牙龈疾病(牙周炎/牙龈炎)
- 上呼吸道感染
- 抗菌剂/降压药物治疗
- 癌症治疗
- 牙齿手术操作损伤
- 扁桃体切除术
- 中耳手术
- 贝尔麻痹
- 与药物有关
- 灼口病(综合征)/小纤维神经病
不常见
- 慢性中耳感染
- 2019 冠状病毒病(COVID-19):急性和持续性
- 上呼吸道镜检
- 口腔手术
- 颅骨手术
- Hunt综合征
- 卒中
- 头部创伤
- 帕金森病
- 阿尔茨海默氏痴呆
- 肌萎缩侧索硬化
- 多发性硬化
- 癫痫
- 重症肌无力
- 吉兰-巴雷综合征
- 干燥综合征
- 肾功能不全
- 肝衰竭
- 糖尿病
- 甲状腺功能减退
- 桥小脑角肿瘤
- 副肿瘤综合征
- 铁缺乏
- 维生素 B12 缺乏症
- 锌缺乏症
撰稿人
作者
Andrei Barasch, DMD, MDSc
Associate Professor
Weill Cornell Medical College
Division of Oncology
New York
NY
利益声明
AB declares that he has no competing interests.
Joel Epstein, DMD, MSD, FRCD(C), FDS RCS (Edin)
Consulting Staff
Director of Oral Health Services
Division of Head and Neck Surgery
Professor of Oral Medicine
Department of Surgery
City of Hope
Duarte
Los Angeles
CA
利益声明
JE declares that he is a consultant for Nielsen Health Sciences.
鸣谢
Dr Andrei Barasch and Dr Joel Epstein would like to gratefully acknowledge Dr Stéphanie Collet, Dr Basile Nicolas Landis, and Dr Philippe Rombaux, previous contributors to this topic.
利益声明
SC is an author of a reference cited in this topic. BNL has been reimbursed for speaking on olfactory disorders at a neuroscience meeting in Switzerland and is an author of a number of references cited in this topic. PR is an author of a number of references cited in this topic.
同行评议者
Volker Gudziol, MD
ENT Specialist
Department of Otorhinolaryngology
University of Dresden Medical School
Dresden
Germany
利益声明
VG declares that he has no competing interests.
指南
- 疑似神经系统疾病:识别和转诊
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贝尔麻痹
何为慢性肾病?
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