Assessment of anaemia

Anaemia is a haemoglobin (Hb) level two standard deviations below the mean for the age and sex of the patient. Reference ranges vary between laboratories. The World Health Organization recommends the following haemoglobin cutoffs to define anaemia in the individual:[1]World Health Organization. Guideline on haemoglobin cutoffs to define anaemia in individuals and populations. Mar 2024 [internet publication]. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240088542

• Hb <10.5 g/dL in children aged 6 to 23 months

• Hb <11 g/dL in children aged 24 to 59 months

• Hb <11.5 g/dL children aged 5 to 11 years

• Hb <12 g/dL in children aged 12 to 14 years

• Hb <12 g/dL in non-pregnant adult females (aged over 15 years)

• Hb <13 g/dL in adult males (aged over 15 years)

• Hb <11 g/dL during the first trimester pregnancy

• Hb <10.5 g/dL during the second trimester pregnancy

• Hb <11 g/dL during the third trimester pregnancy

Adjustments to haemoglobin cut-off values may be required, according to external factors, such as cigarette smoking and the population’s elevation above sea level.[1]World Health Organization. Guideline on haemoglobin cutoffs to define anaemia in individuals and populations. Mar 2024 [internet publication]. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240088542

Anaemia is commonly seen in general medical practice.[2]Gandhi SJ, Hagans I, Nathan K, et al. Prevalence, comorbidity and investigation of anemia in the primary care office. J Clin Med Res. 2017 Dec;9(12):970-80. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5687900 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29163729?tool=bestpractice.com [3]Milovanovic T, Dragasevic S, Nikolic AN, et al. Anemia as a problem: GP approach. Dig Dis. 2022;40(3):370-5. https://karger.com/ddi/article/40/3/370/827834/Anemia-as-a-Problem-GP-Approach http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34098557?tool=bestpractice.com ​​ Risk factors include extremes of age, female sex, lactation, and pregnancy. The most common cause is dietary iron deficiency.[4]Camaschella C. Iron-deficiency anemia. N Engl J Med. 2015 May 7;372(19):1832-43. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25946282?tool=bestpractice.com [5]Safiri S, Kolahi AA, Noori M, et al. Burden of anemia and its underlying causes in 204 countries and territories, 1990-2019: results from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. J Hematol Oncol. 2021 Nov 4;14(1):185. https://jhoonline.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13045-021-01202-2 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34736513?tool=bestpractice.com

Anaemia can cause significant morbidity if left untreated, and is often the presenting sign of a more serious underlying condition.[6]Thein M, Ershler WB, Artz AS, et al. Diminished quality of life and physical function in community-dwelling elderly with anemia. Medicine (Baltimore). 2009 Mar;88(2):107-14. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2893336 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19282701?tool=bestpractice.com The rate at which anaemia develops is often as important as the severity, as a rapid decline can overwhelm the compensatory mechanisms of the body.

Globally, in 2019, 40% of children aged 6 to 59 months were anaemic.[7]Stevens GA, Paciorek CJ, Flores-Urrutia MC, et al. National, regional, and global estimates of anaemia by severity in women and children for 2000-19: a pooled analysis of population-representative data. Lancet Glob Health. 2022 May;10(5):e627-39. https://www.thelancet.com/journals/langlo/article/PIIS2214-109X(22)00084-5/fulltext http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35427520?tool=bestpractice.com ​ Africa and South-East Asia are the most affected regions. For all population groups combined, the Global Burden of Disease Study (2019) estimated that approximately 23% of the world’s population had some form of anaemia, affecting 1.8 billion people.[8]Wilson SE, Rogers LM, Garcia-Casal MN, et al. Comprehensive framework for integrated action on the prevention, diagnosis, and management of anemia: an introduction. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2023 Jun;1524(1):5-9. https://nyaspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nyas.14999 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/37067421?tool=bestpractice.com

Pathophysiology

Erythropoiesis takes place within the bone marrow and is controlled by the stromal network, cytokines, and the hormone erythropoietin. Through a series of differentiation steps, haematopoietic stem cells become reticulocytes (red blood cells [RBCs] with an intact ribosomal network).

Reticulocytes remain in the bone marrow for 3 days before being released into the circulation. After approximately one day in the circulation, reticulocytes lose their ribosomal network and become mature RBCs, which circulate for 110-120 days before being removed from the circulation by macrophages.[9]Stevens-Hernandez CJ, Bruce LJ. Reticulocyte maturation. Membranes (Basel). 2022 Mar 10;12(3):311. https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0375/12/3/311 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35323786?tool=bestpractice.com

Anaemia develops when the rate of RBC production decreases and/or the rate of RBC loss increases.

Morphological classification of anaemia

The most clinically useful classification system is based on the mean corpuscular volume (MCV).[10]Goldman L, Schafer AI, eds. Chapter 149: Approach to the anemias. In: Goldman-Cecil Medicine, 2-Volume Set. 26th ed. Elsevier; 2019.

• Microcytic (MCV <80 femtolitres [fL]). [Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: Microcytic anaemiaFrom the collection of Dr Robert Zaiden; used with permission [Citation ends].

• Normocytic (MCV 80-100 femtolitres [fL]); can be hyperproliferative or hypoproliferative.

  • Hyperproliferative (reticulocyte count >2%): the proportion of circulating reticulocytes increases as part of a compensatory response to increased destruction or loss of RBCs. The cause is usually acute blood loss or haemolysis.

  • Hypoproliferative (reticulocyte count <2%): primarily disorders of decreased RBC production, and the proportion of circulating reticulocytes remains unchanged.

• Macrocytic (MCV >100 femtolitres [fL]); can be megaloblastic or non-megaloblastic.

  • Megaloblastic: a deficiency of DNA production or maturation resulting in the appearance of large immature RBCs (megaloblasts) and hypersegmented neutrophils in the circulation.

  • Non-megaloblastic: encompasses all other causes of macrocytic anaemia in which DNA synthesis is normal. Megaloblasts and hypersegmented neutrophils are absent.[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: Megaloblastic macrocytic anaemiaFrom the collection of Dr Robert Zaiden; used with permission [Citation ends].[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: Classification of anaemia: MCV, mean corpuscular volume; fL, femtolitresCreated by the BMJ Knowledge Centre [Citation ends].