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Rh incompatibility

Last reviewed: 3 Apr 2025
Last updated: 11 Apr 2025

Summary

Definition

History and exam

Key diagnostic factors

  • presence of risk factors
Full details

Risk factors

  • history of an RhD-positive fetus in an RhD-negative mother
  • fetomaternal hemorrhage
  • invasive fetal procedures
  • placental trauma
  • abortion
  • multiparity
  • omission of Rh immunoprophylaxis
  • external cephalic version
  • molar pregnancy
  • ectopic pregnancy
Full details

Diagnostic tests

1st tests to order

  • maternal blood type
  • maternal serum Rh antibody screen
Full details

Tests to consider

  • maternal serum antibody titer
  • paternal blood type
  • paternal zygosity
  • fetal ultrasound
  • Doppler velocimetry of fetal middle cerebral artery (peak systolic velocity)
  • fetal blood typing (from amniocentesis or maternal circulation)
  • direct assessment of fetal anemia
  • rosette test
  • Kleihauer-Betke test/flow cytometry
Full details

Treatment algorithm

INITIAL

unsensitized RhD-negative mother

sensitized RhD-negative mother

ACUTE

neonate with erythroblastosis

Contributors

Authors

Andrew D. Hull, MD, FRCOG, FACOG

Professor of Clinical Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Sciences

Director, UC San Diego Maternal-Fetal Care and Genetics

Division of Maternal-Fetal Medicine

Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Sciences

University of California San Diego

La Jolla

CA

Disclosures

ADH declares that he has no competing interests.

Acknowledgements

Dr Andrew D. Hull would like to gratefully acknowledge Dr Karen Fung-Kee-Fung and Dr Felipe Moretti, previous contributors to this topic.

Disclosures

KFKF is an author of a reference cited in this topic. KFKF and FM declare that they have no competing interests.

Peer reviewers

Alan Cameron, MD

Honorary Professor of Medicine

University of Glasgow

Glasgow

UK

Disclosures

AC is an author of several references cited in this topic.

Liakat Ali Parapia, MD, FRCP

Consultant Hematologist

Bradford Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust

Yorkshire Clinic

Bingley

Bradford

UK

Disclosures

LAP declares that he has no competing interests.

Kenneth J. Moise, Jr., MD

Professor of Obstetrics and Gynecology

Texas Children's Fetal Center

Baylor College of Medicine/Texas Children's Hospital

Houston

TX

Disclosures

KJM declares that he has no competing interests.

References

Our in-house evidence and editorial teams collaborate with international expert contributors and peer reviewers to ensure that we provide access to the most clinically relevant information possible.

Key articles

Brennand J, Cameron A. Fetal anaemia: diagnosis and management. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol. 2008 Feb;22(1):15-29. Abstract

American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology. ACOG practice bulletin no. 181: prevention of Rh D alloimmunization. Obstet Gynecol. 2017 Aug;130(2):e57-70. Abstract

American Congress of Obstetrics and Gynecology. ACOG practice bulletin no. 192: management of alloimmunization during pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 2018 Mar;131(3):e82-90. Abstract

Qureshi H, Massey E, Kirwan D, et al. BCSH guideline for the use of anti-D immunoglobulin for the prevention of haemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn. Transfus Med. 2014 Feb;24(1):8-20.Full text  Abstract

Visser GHA, Thommesen T, Di Renzo GC, et al. FIGO/ICM guidelines for preventing Rhesus disease: a call to action. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2021 Feb;152(2):144-7.Full text  Abstract

Whyte RK, Jefferies AL; Canadian Paediatric Society, Fetus and Newborn Committee. Red blood cell transfusion in newborn infants. Paediatr Child Health. 2014 Apr;19(4):213-22.Full text  Abstract

Reference articles

A full list of sources referenced in this topic is available to users with access to all of BMJ Best Practice.
  • Rh incompatibility images
  • Differentials

    • Nonimmune fetal hydrops
    • Parvovirus infection
    • Non-RhD hemolytic disease
    More Differentials
  • Guidelines

    • ACOG clinical practice update: paternal and fetal genotyping in the management of alloimmunization in pregnancy
    • ACOG clinical practice update: Rh D immune globulin administration after abortion of pregnancy loss at less than 12 weeks of gestation
    More Guidelines
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