References
Key articles
Shulman ST, Bisno AL, Clegg HW, et al. Clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis and management of group A streptococcal pharyngitis: 2012 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2012 Nov 15;55(10):e86-102. [Erratum in: Clin Infect Dis. 2014 May;58(10):1496.]Full text Abstract
American Academy of Pediatrics. Group A streptococcal infections. In: Kimberlin DW, Barnett ED, Lynfield R, et al, eds. Red book: 2021-2024 report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases, 32nd ed. Itasca, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2021.Full text
Reference articles
1. Vorel E, Greenfield M. Scarlet fever. In: Ferri FF, ed. Ferri's clinical advisor 2022. New York, NY: Elsevier; 2022:1340.e2-1340.e3.
2. Shulman ST, Bisno AL, Clegg HW, et al. Clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis and management of group A streptococcal pharyngitis: 2012 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2012 Nov 15;55(10):e86-102. [Erratum in: Clin Infect Dis. 2014 May;58(10):1496.]Full text Abstract
3. American Academy of Pediatrics. Group A streptococcal infections. In: Kimberlin DW, Barnett ED, Lynfield R, et al, eds. Red book: 2021-2024 report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases, 32nd ed. Itasca, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2021.Full text
4. World Health Organization. International statistical classification of diseases and health related problems (ICD). 11th revision. 2022 [internet publication].Full text
5. Lamagni T, Guy R, Chand M, et al. Resurgence of scarlet fever in England, 2014-16: a population-based surveillance study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2018 Feb;18(2):180-7.Full text Abstract
6. Liu Y, Chan TC, Yap LW, et al. Resurgence of scarlet fever in China: a 13-year population-based surveillance study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2018 Aug;18(8):903-12.Full text Abstract
7. Staszewska-Jakubik E, Czarkowski MP, Kondej B. Scarlet fever in Poland in 2014. Przegl Epidemiol. 2016;70(2):195-202. Abstract
8. Hurst JR, Brouwer S, Walker MJ, et al. Streptococcal superantigens and the return of scarlet fever. PLoS Pathog. 2021 Dec;17(12):e1010097.Full text Abstract
9. Walker MJ, Brouwer S. Scarlet fever makes a comeback. Lancet Infect Dis. 2018 Feb;18(2):128-9. Abstract
10. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Scarlet fever: information for clinicians. Jun 2022 [internet publication].Full text
11. Managing scarlet fever. Drug Ther Bull. 2017 Sep;55(9):102. Abstract
12. Cunningham MW. Pathogenesis of group A streptococcal infections. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2000 Jul;13(3):470-511.Full text Abstract
13. Soderholm AT, Barnett TC, Sweet MJ, et al. Group A streptococcal pharyngitis: immune responses involved in bacterial clearance and GAS-associated immunopathologies. J Leukoc Biol. 2018 Feb;103(2):193-213. Abstract
14. Wu S, Peng X, Yang Z, et al. Estimated burden of group a streptococcal pharyngitis among children in Beijing, China. BMC Infect Dis. 2016 Aug 26;16(1):452.Full text Abstract
15. Herdman MT, Cordery R, Karo B, et al. Clinical management and impact of scarlet fever in the modern era: findings from a cross-sectional study of cases in London, 2018-2019. BMJ Open. 2021 Dec 24;11(12):e057772.Full text Abstract
16. Watts V, Balasegaram S, Brown CS, et al. Increased risk for invasive group A streptococcus disease for household contacts of scarlet fever cases, England, 2011-2016. Emerg Infect Dis. 2019 Mar;25(3):529-37.Full text Abstract
17. Ferretti JJ, Stevens DL, Fischetti VA, eds. Streptococcus pyogenes: basic biology to clinical manifestations [internet]. 2nd ed. Oklahoma City, OK: University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center; 2022.Full text
18. Brook MG, Bannister BA. Scarlet fever can mimic toxic shock syndrome. Postgrad Med J. 1988 Dec;64(758):965-7.Full text Abstract
19. Stevens DL. Invasive group A streptococcus infections. Clin Infect Dis. 1992 Jan;14(1):2-11. Abstract
20. Cordery R, Purba AK, Begum L, et al. Frequency of transmission, asymptomatic shedding, and airborne spread of Streptococcus pyogenes in schoolchildren exposed to scarlet fever: a prospective, longitudinal, multicohort, molecular epidemiological, contact-tracing study in England, UK. Lancet Microbe. 2022 May;3(5):e366-75.Full text Abstract
21. McGuire E, Li A, Collin SM, et al. Time to negative throat culture following initiation of antibiotics for pharyngeal group A streptococcus: a systematic review and meta-analysis to inform public health control measures [preprint]. medRxiv. 2022 Nov 8 [Epub ahead of print].Full text
22. Long SS, Prober CG, Fischer M. Principles and practice of pediatric infectious diseases, 5th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2017.
23. Bennett JE, Dolin R, Blaser MJ. Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's principles and practice of infectious diseases, 9th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2019.
24. Windfuhr JP, Toepfner N, Steffen G, et al. Clinical practice guideline: tonsillitis I. Diagnostics and nonsurgical management. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2016 Apr;273(4):973-87.Full text Abstract
25. Centor RM, Witherspoon JM, Dalton HP, et al. The diagnosis of strep throat in adults in the emergency room. Med Decis Making. 1981;1(3):239-46. Abstract
26. Cohen JF, Cohen R, Levy C, et al. Selective testing strategies for diagnosing group A streptococcal infection in children with pharyngitis: a systematic review and prospective multicentre external validation study. CMAJ. 2015 Jan 6;187(1):23-32.Full text Abstract
27. Cohen JF, Cohen R, Bidet P, et al. Efficiency of a clinical prediction model for selective rapid testing in children with pharyngitis: a prospective, multicenter study. PLoS One. 2017 Feb 24;12(2):e0172871.Full text Abstract
28. Roggen I, van Berlaer G, Gordts F, et al. Centor criteria in children in a paediatric emergency department: for what it is worth. BMJ Open. 2013 Apr 22;3(4):e002712.Full text Abstract
29. Pecina JL, Nigon LM, Penza KS, et al. Use of the McIsaac score to predict group A streptococcal pharyngitis in outpatient nurse phone triage and electronic visits compared with in-person visits: retrospective observational study. J Med Internet Res. 2021 Dec 20;23(12):e25899.Full text Abstract
30. Willis BH, Coomar D, Baragilly M. Comparison of Centor and McIsaac scores in primary care: a meta-analysis over multiple thresholds. Br J Gen Pract. 2020 Apr;70(693):e245-54.Full text Abstract
31. Cohen JF, Bertille N, Cohen R, et al. Rapid antigen detection test for group A streptococcus in children with pharyngitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016 Jul 4;(7):CD010502.Full text Abstract
32. Lean WL, Arnup S, Danchin M, et al. Rapid diagnostic tests for group A streptococcal pharyngitis: a meta-analysis. Pediatrics. 2014 Oct;134(4):771-81. Abstract
33. Barakat AJ, Evans C, Gill M, et al. Rapid strep testing in children with recently treated streptococcal pharyngitis. Pediatr Investig. 2019 Mar;3(1):27-30.Full text Abstract
34. Shaikh N, Swaminathan N, Hooper EG. Accuracy and precision of the signs and symptoms of streptococcal pharyngitis in children: a systematic review. J Pediatr. 2012 Mar;160(3):487-493.e3. Abstract
35. McIsaac WJ, White D, Tannenbaum D, et al. A clinical score to reduce unnecessary antibiotic use in patients with sore throat. CMAJ. 1998 Jan 13;158(1):75-83.Full text Abstract
36. Nibhanipudi KV. A study to determine if addition of palatal petechiae to Centor criteria adds more significance to clinical diagnosis of acute strep pharyngitis in children. Glob Pediatr Health. 2016 Jul 5;3:2333794X16657943.Full text Abstract
37. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Measles (rubeola): for healthcare providers. Nov 2020 [internet publication].Full text
38. Mackenzie A, Fuite LA, Chan FT, et al. Incidence and pathogenicity of Arcanobacterium haemolyticum during a 2-year study in Ottawa. Clin Infect Dis. 1995 Jul;21(1):177-81. Abstract
39. McIsaac WJ, Kellner JD, Aufricht P, et al. Empirical validation of guidelines for the management of pharyngitis in children and adults. JAMA. 2004 Apr 7;291(13):1587-95.Full text Abstract
40. Shaikh N, Leonard E, Martin JM. Prevalence of streptococcal pharyngitis and streptococcal carriage in children: a meta-analysis. Pediatrics. 2010 Sep;126(3):e557-64. Abstract
41. Canadian Paediatric Society. Group A streptococcal (GAS) pharyngitis: a practical guide to diagnosis and treatment. 2021 [internet publication].Full text
42. Gerber MA, Baltimore RS, Eaton CB, et al. Prevention of rheumatic fever and diagnosis and treatment of acute streptococcal pharyngitis: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association Rheumatic Fever, Endocarditis, and Kawasaki Disease Committee of the Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, the Interdisciplinary Council on Functional Genomics and Translational Biology, and the Interdisciplinary Council on Quality of Care and Outcomes Research: endorsed by the American Academy of Pediatrics. Circulation. 2009 Mar 24;119(11):1541-51.Full text Abstract
43. Holm AE, Llor C, Bjerrum L, et al. Short- vs. long-course antibiotic treatment for acute streptococcal pharyngitis: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Antibiotics (Basel). 2020 Oct 26;9(11):733.Full text Abstract
44. van Driel ML, De Sutter AI, Thorning S, et al. Different antibiotic treatments for group A streptococcal pharyngitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021 Mar 17;(3):CD004406.Full text Abstract
45. Joint Task Force on Practice Parameters, American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology, American College of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology, et al. Drug allergy: an updated practice parameter. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2010 Oct;105(4):259-73. Abstract
46. Johnson AF, LaRock CN. Antibiotic treatment, mechanisms for failure, and adjunctive therapies for infections by group A streptococcus. Front Microbiol. 2021 Nov 4;12:760255.Full text Abstract
47. Altamimi S, Khalil A, Khalaiwi KA, et al. Short-term late-generation antibiotics versus longer term penicillin for acute streptococcal pharyngitis in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012 Aug 15;(8):CD004872.Full text Abstract
48. World Health Organization. Critically important antimicrobials for human medicine: 6th revision. Mar 2019 [internet publication].Full text
49. Drug and Therapeutics Bulletin. Managing scarlet fever. BMJ. 2018 Aug 30;362:k3005. Abstract
50. Kotloff KL. Streptococcus group A vaccines. In: Plotkin SA, Orenstein WA, Offit PA, et al, eds. Plotkin's vaccines. 7th ed. 2018. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier;1039-45.
51. ClinicalTrials.gov. A trial of a peptide-based group A streptococcal (GAS) vaccine candidate in healthy individuals. Nov 2022 [internet publication].Full text
52. Reynolds S, Pandey M, Dooley J, et al. Preclinical safety and immunogenicity of Streptococcus pyogenes (Strep A) peptide vaccines. Sci Rep. 2021 Jan 8;11(1):127.Full text Abstract
53. Eskandari S, Good MF, Pandey M. Peptide-protein conjugation and characterization to develop vaccines for group A streptococcus. Methods Mol Biol. 2021;2355:17-33. Abstract
54. Carapetis JR, Steer AC, Mulholland EK, et al. The global burden of group A streptococcal diseases. Lancet Infect Dis. 2005 Nov;5(11):685-94. Abstract
55. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Streptococcal toxic shock syndrome. Jun 2022 [internet publication].Full text
56. Sartelli M, Guirao X, Hardcastle TC, et al. 2018 WSES/SIS-E consensus conference: recommendations for the management of skin and soft-tissue infections. World J Emerg Surg. 2018 Dec 14;13:58.Full text Abstract
57. UK Health Security Agency. Guidelines for the public health management of scarlet fever outbreaks in schools, nurseries and other childcare settings. Jan 2023 [internet publication].Full text
58. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Fever in under 5s: assessment and initial management. Nov 2021 [internet publication].Full text
59. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia (community-acquired): antimicrobial prescribing. Sep 2019 [internet publication].Full text
60. Randolph AG, McCulloh RJ. Pediatric sepsis: important considerations for diagnosing and managing severe infections in infants, children, and adolescents. Virulence. 2014 Jan 1;5(1):179-89.Full text Abstract
61. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Sepsis: recognition, diagnosis and early management. Sep 2017 [internet publication].Full text
62. Weiss SL, Peters MJ, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign international guidelines for the management of septic shock and sepsis-associated organ dysfunction in children. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2020 Feb;21(2):e52-106.Full text Abstract
63. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Meningitis (bacterial) and meningococcal septicaemia in under 16s: recognition, diagnosis and management. Feb 2015 [internet publication].Full text
64. Powell J, Wilson JA. An evidence-based review of peritonsillar abscess. Clin Otolaryngol. 2012 Apr;37(2):136-45. Abstract
65. Schwartz RH, Kim D, Martin M, et al. A reappraisal of the minimum duration of antibiotic treatment before approval of return to school for children with streptococcal pharyngitis. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2015 Dec;34(12):1302-4. Abstract
66. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Acute rheumatic fever: information for clinicians. Jun 2022 [internet publication].Full text
Use of this content is subject to our disclaimer