Summary
Definition
History and exam
Risk factors
- hypothyroidism
- hypercortisolism
- age ≥40 years
- peri- and postmenopause
- prior pregnancy
- married
- sleep deprivation
- history of tobacco smoking
- less formal education
- poor in utero nutrition
- low socioeconomic status
- sedentary lifestyle
- television watching and video games >2 to 3 hours daily
- diet high in sugar, cholesterol, fat, and fast food
- heavy alcohol intake (>2 drinks per day)
- binge-eating disorder
- night eating syndrome
- leptin deficiency
- corticosteroid therapy
- antidepressant therapy
- antipsychotic therapy
- beta-blocker therapy
- adjuvant breast cancer therapy
- psychiatric diagnosis
Diagnostic investigations
Investigations to consider
- CBC
- serum aminotransferases
- thyroid function tests
- ECG
- abdominal ultrasound scan
- polysomnography (sleep study)
Treatment algorithm
Contributors
Authors

Director, Chicago Institute of Minimally Invasive Surgery (CIMIS)
Director, Laparoscopic and Bariatric Fellowship Program
Clinical Professor of Surgery, University of Illinois
Chicago
IL
Disclosures
CTF declares that he has no competing interests.

Site Director, General Surgery Residency Program
Elmhurst Memorial Healthcare
Elmhurst
IL
Adjunct Associate Professor of Surgery
Department of General Surgery
Rush University Medical Center
Chicago
IL
Disclosures
MBL declares that he has no competing interests.
Dr Constantine T. Frantzides and Dr Minh B. Luu would like to gratefully acknowledge Dr Scott N. Welle and Dr Mark A. Carlson, previous contributors to this topic.
Disclosures
SNW declares that he has no competing interests. MAC declares that he is the author of the Daily Diet Score, a freely available online weight loss method.
Peer reviewers
Consultant in Metabolic Medicine
Imperial College London
Charing Cross Hospital
London
UK
Disclosures
CLR declares that he has no competing interests.
Professor of Medicine
Chair for Obesity Research & Management
University of Alberta
Royal Alexandra Hospital
Edmonton
Canada
Disclosures
AMS declares that he has no competing interests.
Chair in Surgery
Division of Gastrointestinal and Endocrine Surgery
University of Texas
Southwestern Medical Center
Dallas
TX
Disclosures
EHL declares that he has no competing interests.
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