Summary
Definition
History and exam
Key diagnostic factors
- cold or numbness of affected extremity
- pain during rewarming
- purplish skin discoloration
- white or yellowish, waxy skin discoloration
- superficial skin vesiculation
- deep purple blisters
- tissue necrosis and mummification (dry gangrene)
Other diagnostic factors
- erythema
- joint dislocation
- fractures
Risk factors
- cold exposure
- previous frostbite
- vascular insufficiency
- high altitude
- hypoxia
- alcohol
- tobacco
- dehydration
- extremity trauma
- constrictive clothing or equipment
Diagnostic tests
1st tests to order
- clinical diagnosis
Tests to consider
- technetium-99m pertechnetate scintigraphy
- magnetic resonance angiography of affected extremity
- plain radiography
Emerging tests
- thermography and duplex imaging
Treatment algorithm
all patients
Contributors
Authors
Elizabeth A. Kaufman, MD, CAQ-SM
Attending Physician
Department of Orthopedics, Sports Medicine
Scripps Clinic
Attending Physician
Rady Children’s Hospital San Diego
Department of Orthopedics, Sports Medicine
San Diego
CA
Disclosures
EAK declares that she has no competing interests.
Christopher Imray, PhD, FRCS, FRCP, FRGS
Consultant Vascular and Renal Transplant Surgeon
University Hospital Coventry and Warwickshire NHS Trust
Professor Coventry University, Warwick Medical School, Exeter University
Coventry
UK
Declarações
CI has been asked to provide expert testimony on frostbite. He has delivered lectures, and produced educational material on frostbite.
Agradecimentos
Professor Christopher Imray and Dr Elizabeth A. Kaufman would like to gratefully acknowledge Professor Paul S. Auerbach and Dr Claire Turchi, previous contributors to this topic. PSA and CT declare that they have no competing interests.
Revisores
Luanne Freer, MD, FACEP, FAWM
Medical Director
Yellowstone National Park
WY
Founder/Director
Everest Base Camp Medical Clinic
Nepal
Declarações
LF declares that she has no competing interests.
Grant S. Lipman, MD
Clinical Assistant Professor of Surgery and Emergency Medicine
Associate Director Wilderness Medicine Fellowship
Assistant Research Director
Stanford University School of Medicine
Palo Alto
CA
Declarações
GSL declares that he has no competing interests.
Peter Hackett, MD
Director
Institute for Altitude Medicine
Telluride
CO
Declarações
PH declares that he has no competing interests.
Diagnósticos diferenciais
- Cutaneous burns
- Frostnip
- Raynaud phenomenon
Mais Diagnósticos diferenciaisDiretrizes
- 2024 American Heart Association and AmericanRed Cross Guidelines for First Aid
- Clinical practice guidelines for the prevention and treatment of frostbite: 2024 update
Mais Diretrizes
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