References
Key articles
Cierny G 3rd, Mader JT, Penninck JJ. A clinical staging system for adult osteomyelitis. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2003 Sep;(414):7-24. Abstract
American College of Radiology. ACR appropriateness criteria: suspected osteomyelitis of the foot in patients with diabetes mellitus. 2012 [internet publication].Full text
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetic foot problems: prevention and management. January 2016 [internet publication].Full text
Mader JT, Calhoun JH, Lazzarini L. Adult long bone osteomyelitis. In: Mader JT, Calhoun JH, eds. Musculoskeletal infections. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker; 2003:149-82.
Pineda C, Vargas A, Rodriguez AV. Imaging of osteomyelitis: current concepts. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2006 Dec;20(4):789-825. Abstract
Wang GL, Zhao K, Liu ZF, et al. A meta-analysis of fluorodeoxyglucose-positron emission tomography versus scintigraphy in the evaluation of suspected osteomyelitis. Nucl Med Commun. 2011 Dec;32(12):1134-42. Abstract
Cierny G 3rd, Mader JT, Penninck JJ. A clinical staging system for adult osteomyelitis. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2003;414:7-24. Abstract
Reference articles
1. Cierny G 3rd, Mader JT, Penninck JJ. A clinical staging system for adult osteomyelitis. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2003 Sep;(414):7-24. Abstract
2. Kremers HM, Nwojo ME, Ransom JE, et al. Trends in the epidemiology of osteomyelitis: a population-based study, 1969 to 2009. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2015 May 20;97(10):837-45.Full text Abstract
3. Beronius M, Bergman B, Andersson R. Vertebral osteomyelitis in Goteborg, Sweden: a retrospective study of patients during 1990-95. Scand J Infect Dis. 2001;33(7):527-32. Abstract
4. Broner FA, Garland DE, Zigler JE. Spinal infections in the immunocompromised host. Orthop Clin North Am. 1996 Jan;27(1):37-46. Abstract
5. Stewart PS, Costerton JW. Antibiotic resistance of bacteria in biofilms. Lancet. 2001 Jul 14;358(9276):135-8. Abstract
6. Gristina AG, Costerton JW. Bacterial adherence and the glycocalyx and their role in musculoskeletal infection. Orthop Clin North Am. 1984 Jul;15(3):517-35. Abstract
7. Davies DG, Parsek MR, Pearson JP. The involvement of cell-to-cell signals in the development of bacterial biofilm. Science. 1998 Apr 10;280(5361):295-8. Abstract
8. Costerton JW, Stewart PS, Greenberg EP. Bacterial biofilms: a common cause of persistent infections. Science. 1999 May 21;284(5418):1318-22. Abstract
9. Costerton JW, Lewandowski Z, Caldwell DE, et al. Microbial biofilms. Annu Rev Microbiol. 1995;49:711-45. Abstract
10. Trampuz A, Zimmerli W. Antimicrobial agents in orthopaedic surgery: prophylaxis and treatment. Drugs. 2006;66(8):1089-105. Abstract
11. Brady RA, Leid JG, Calhoun JH, et al. Osteomyelitis and the role of biofilms in chronic infection. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol. 2008 Jan;52(1):13-22.Full text Abstract
12. Tröbs R, Möritz R, Bühligen U, et al. Changing pattern of osteomyelitis in infants and children. Pediatr Surg Int. 1999 Jul;15(5-6):363-72. Abstract
13. Wallace WC, Cinat M, Gornick WB, et al. Nosocomial infections in the surgical intensive care unit: a difference between trauma and surgical patients. Am Surg. 1999 Oct;65(10):987-90. Abstract
14. Ottino G, De Paulis R, Pansini S, et al. Major sternal wound infection after open-heart surgery: a multivariate analysis of risk factors in 2579 consecutive operative procedures. Ann Thorac Surg. 1987 Aug;44(2):173-9. Abstract
15. Lavery LA, Armstrong DG, Wunderlich RP, et al. Risk factors for foot infections in individuals with diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2006 Jun;29(6):1288-93.Full text Abstract
16. American College of Radiology. ACR appropriateness criteria: suspected osteomyelitis of the foot in patients with diabetes mellitus. 2012 [internet publication].Full text
17. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetic foot problems: prevention and management. January 2016 [internet publication].Full text
18. Sharkawy AA. Cervicofacial actinomycosis and mandibular osteomyelitis. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2007 Jun;21(2):543-56. Abstract
19. Lipsky BA, Berendt AR, Cornia PB, et al. 2012 Infectious Diseases Society of America clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis and treatment of diabetic foot infections. Clin Infect Dis. 2012 Jun;54(12):e132-73.Full text Abstract
20. Calhoun JH, Cantrell J, Cobos J, et al. Treatment of diabetic foot infections: Wagner classification, therapy, and outcome. Foot Ankle. 1988 Dec;9(3):101-6. Abstract
21. Mitha A, Boulyana M, Hue V, et al; European French-speaking expert group. Consensus in diagnostic definitions for bone or joint infections in children by a Delphi method with European French-speaking experts. Acta Paediatr. 2012 Aug;101(8):e350-6. Abstract
22. Mader JT, Calhoun JH, Lazzarini L. Adult long bone osteomyelitis. In: Mader JT, Calhoun JH, eds. Musculoskeletal infections. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker; 2003:149-82.
23. Dimaala J, Chaljub G, Oto A, et al. Odontoid osteomyelitis masquerading as a C2 fracture in an 18-month-old male with torticollis: CT and MRI features. Emerg Radiol. 2006 Jul;12(5):234-6. Abstract
24. McKnight P, Friedman J. Torticollis due to cervical epidural abscess and osteomyelitis. Neurology. 1992 Mar;42(3 Pt 1):696-7. Abstract
25. Ursprung WM, Kettner NW, Boesch R. Vertebral osteomyelitis: a case report of a patient presenting with acute low back pain. J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 2005 Nov-Dec;28(9):713-8. Abstract
26. Buoncristiani AM, McCullen G, Shin AY, et al. An unusual cause of low back pain. Osteomyelitis of the spinous process. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 1998 Apr 1;23(7):839-41. Abstract
27. Schulak DJ, Rayhack JM, Lippert FG 3rd, et al. The erythrocyte sedimentation rate in orthopaedic patients. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1982 Jul;(167):197-202. Abstract
28. Carragee EJ, Kim D, van der Vlugt T, et al. The clinical use of erythrocyte sedimentation rate in pyogenic vertebral osteomyelitis. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 1997 Sep 15;22(18):2089-93. Abstract
29. Perry M. Erythrocyte sedimentation rate and C reactive protein in the assessment of suspected bone infection - are they reliable indexes? J R Coll Surg Edinb. 1996 Apr;41(2):116-8. Abstract
30. Roine I, Faingezicht I, Arguedas A, et al. Serial serum C-reactive protein to monitor recovery from acute hematogenous osteomyelitis in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1995 Jan;14(1):40-4. Abstract
31. Unkila-Kallio L, Kallio MJ, Eskola J, et al. Serum C-reactive protein, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and white blood cell count in acute hematogenous osteomyelitis of children. Pediatrics. 1994 Jan;93(1):59-62. Abstract
32. Trampuz A, Piper KE, Hanssen AD, et al. Sonication of explanted prosthetic components in bags for diagnosis of prosthetic joint infection is associated with risk of contamination. J Clin Microbiol. 2006 Feb;44(2):628-31.Full text Abstract
33. Mackowiak PA, Jones SR, Smith JW. Diagnostic value of sinus tract cultures in chronic osteomyelitis. JAMA. 1978 Jun 30;239(26):2772-5. Abstract
34. Calhoun JH, Manring MM. Adult osteomyelitis. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2005 Dec;19(4):765-86. Abstract
35. Ericsson HM, Sherris JC. Antibiotic sensitivity testing: Report of an international collaborative study. Acta Pathol Microbiol Scand B Microbiol Immunol. 1971;217:(suppl 217):1. Abstract
36. Trampuz A, Piper KE, Jacobson MJ, et al. Sonication of removed hip and knee prostheses for diagnosis of infection. N Engl J Med. 2007 Aug 16;357(7):654-63.Full text Abstract
37. Jevtic V. Vertebral infection. Eur Radiol. 2004 Mar;14(suppl 3):E43-52. Abstract
38. Theodorou DJ, Theodorou SJ, Kakitsubata Y, et al. Imaging characteristics and epidemiologic features of atypical mycobacterial infections involving the musculoskeletal system. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2001 Feb;176(2):341-9.Full text Abstract
39. Flemming D, Murphey M, McCarthy K. Imaging of the foot and ankle: summary and update. Curr Opin Orthop. 2005;16:54-9.
40. Pineda C, Vargas A, Rodriguez AV. Imaging of osteomyelitis: current concepts. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2006 Dec;20(4):789-825. Abstract
41. Butt WP. The radiology of infection. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1973 Oct;(96):20-30. Abstract
42. Jones AG, Francis MD, Davis MA. Bone scanning: radionuclidic reaction mechanisms. Semin Nucl Med. 1976 Jan;6(1):3-18. Abstract
43. Kuhn JP, Berger PE. Computed tomographic diagnosis of osteomyelitis. Radiology. 1979 Feb;130(2):503-6. Abstract
44. Wang GL, Zhao K, Liu ZF, et al. A meta-analysis of fluorodeoxyglucose-positron emission tomography versus scintigraphy in the evaluation of suspected osteomyelitis. Nucl Med Commun. 2011 Dec;32(12):1134-42. Abstract
45. Carragee EJ. Pyogenic vertebral osteomyelitis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1997 Jun;79(6):874-80. Abstract
46. Kesselring FO, Penn W. Radiological aspects of 'classic' primary osteosarcoma: value of some radiological investigations - a review. Diagn Imaging. 1982;51(2):78-92. Abstract
47. Sajadi KR, Heck RK, Neel MD, et al. The incidence and prognosis of osteosarcoma skip metastases. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2004;426:92-96. Abstract
48. Gross T, Kaim AH, Regazzoni P, et al. Current concepts in post-traumatic osteomyelitis: a diagnostic challenge with new imaging options. J Trauma. 2002 Jun;52(6):1210-9. Abstract
49. Cierny G 3rd, Mader JT, Penninck JJ. A clinical staging system for adult osteomyelitis. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2003;414:7-24. Abstract
50. Howard-Jones AR, Isaacs D. Systematic review of duration and choice of systemic antibiotic therapy for acute haematogenous bacterial osteomyelitis in children. J Paediatr Child Health. 2013 Sep;49(9):760-8. Abstract
51. Bouchoucha S, Gafsi K, Trifa M, et al. Intravenous antibiotic therapy for acute hematogenous osteomyelitis in children: short versus long course [in French]. Arch Pediatr. 2013 May;20(5):464-9. Abstract
52. Atkins BL, Athanasou N, Deeks JJ, et al. Prospective evaluation of criteria for microbiological diagnosis of prosthetic-joint infection at revision arthroplasty: the OSIRIS Collaborative Study Group. J Clin Microbiol. 1998 Oct;36(10):2932-9.Full text Abstract
53. Sheehy SH, Atkins BA, Bejon P, et al. The microbiology of chronic osteomyelitis: prevalence of resistance to common empirical anti-microbial regimens. J Infect. 2010 May;60(5):338-43. Abstract
54. Cierny G 3rd, Mader JT. The surgical treatment of adult osteomyelitis. In: Evarts CMC, ed. Surgery of the musculoskeletal system. New York: Churchill Livingstone; 1983:4337-79.
55. Anthony JP, Mathes SJ, Alpert BS. The muscle flap in the treatment of chronic lower extremity osteomyelitis: results in patients over 5 years after treatment. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1991 Aug;88(2):311-8. Abstract
56. May JW Jr, Jupiter JB, Gallico GG 3rd, et al. Treatment of chronic traumatic bone wounds. Microvascular free tissue transfer: a 13-year experience in 96 patients. Ann Surg. 1991 Sep;214(3):241-50.Full text Abstract
57. Mayberry-Carson KJ, Tober-Meyer B, Smith JK, et al. Bacterial adherence and glycocalyx formation in osteomyelitis experimentally induced with Staphylococcus aureus. Infect Immun. 1984 Mar;43(3):825-33.Full text Abstract
58. Walenkamp GH, Vree TB, van Rens TJ. Gentamicin-PMMA beads: pharmacokinetic and nephrotoxicological study. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1986 Apr;(205):171-83. Abstract
59. Buchholz HW, Elson RA, Heinert K. Antibiotic-loaded acrylic cement: current concepts. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1984 Nov;(190):96-108. Abstract
60. Cho SH, Song HR, Koo KH, et al. Antibiotic-impregnated cement beads in the treatment of chronic osteomyelitis. Bull Hosp Jt Dis. 1997;56(3):140-4. Abstract
61. Evans RP, Nelson CL. Gentamicin-impregnated polymethylmethacrylate beads compared with systemic antibiotic therapy in the treatment of chronic osteomyelitis. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1993 Oct;(295):37-42. Abstract
62. Walenkamp GH, Kleijn LL, de Leeuw M. Osteomyelitis treated with gentamicin-PMMA beads: 100 patients followed for 1-12 years. Acta Orthop Scand. 1998 Oct;69(5):518-22. Abstract
63. Neut D, van de Belt H, van Horn JR, et al. Residual gentamicin-release from antibiotic-loaded polymethylmethacrylate beads after 5 years of implantation. Biomaterials. 2003 May;24(10):1829-31. Abstract
64. Kendall RW, Duncan CP, Smith JA, et al. Persistence of bacteria on antibiotic loaded acrylic depots: a reason for caution. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1996 Aug;(329):273-80. Abstract
65. Turner TM, Urban RM, Hall DJ, et al. Local and systemic levels of tobramycin delivered from calcium sulfate bone graft substitute pellets. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2005 Aug;(437):97-104. Abstract
66. Cornell CN, Tyndall D, Waller S, et al. Treatment of experimental osteomyelitis with antibiotic-impregnated bone graft substitute. J Orthop Res. 1993 Sep;11(5):619-26. Abstract
67. Korkusuz F, Uchida A, Shinto Y, et al. Experimental implant-related osteomyelitis treated by antibiotic-calcium hydroxyapatite ceramic composites. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1993 Jan;75(1):111-4. Abstract
68. Shirtliff ME, Calhoun JH, Mader JT. Experimental osteomyelitis treatment with antibiotic-impregnated hydroxyapatite. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2002 Aug;(401):239-47. Abstract
69. Thomas DB, Brooks DE, Bice TG, et al. Tobramycin-impregnated calcium sulfate prevents infection in contaminated wounds. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2005 Dec;441:366-71. Abstract
70. Wenke JC, Owens BD, Svoboda SJ, et al. Effectiveness of commercially-available antibiotic-impregnated implants. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2006 Aug;88(8):1102-4.Full text Abstract
71. Yarboro SR, Baum EJ, Dahners LE. Locally administered antibiotics for prophylaxis against surgical wound infection: an in vivo study. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2007 May;89(5):929-33. Abstract
72. Fleiter N, Walter G, Bösebeck H, et al. Clinical use and safety of a novel gentamicin-releasing resorbable bone graft substitute in the treatment of osteomyelitis/osteitis. Bone Joint Res. 2014 Jul;3(7):223-9.Full text Abstract
73. McKee MD, Wild LM, Schemitsch EH, et al. The use of an antibiotic-impregnated, osteoconductive, bioabsorbable bone substitute in the treatment of infected long bone defects: early results of a prospective trial. J Orthop Trauma. 2002 Oct;16(9):622-7. Abstract
74. Gitelis S, Brebach GT. The treatment of chronic osteomyelitis with a biodegradable antibiotic-impregnated implant. J Orthop Surg (Hong Kong). 2002 Jun;10(1):53-60. Abstract
75. Chang W, Colangeli M, Colangeli S, et al. Adult osteomyelitis: debridement versus debridement plus Osteoset T pellets. Acta Orthop Belg. 2007 Apr;73(2):238-43. Abstract
76. McKee MD, Li-Bland EA, Wild LM, et al. A prospective, randomized clinical trial comparing an antibiotic-impregnated bioabsorbable bone substitute with standard antibiotic-impregnated cement beads in the treatment of chronic osteomyelitis and infected nonunion. J Orthop Trauma. 2010 Aug;24(8):483-90. Abstract
77. Humm G, Noor S, Bridgeman P, et al. Adjuvant treatment of chronic osteomyelitis of the tibia following exogenous trauma using OSTEOSET(®)-T: a review of 21 patients in a regional trauma centre. Strategies Trauma Limb Reconstr. 2014 Nov;9(3):157-61.Full text Abstract
78. Ferguson JY, Dudareva M, Riley ND, et al. The use of a biodegradable antibiotic-loaded calcium sulphate carrier containing tobramycin for the treatment of chronic osteomyelitis: a series of 195 cases. Bone Joint J. 2014 Jun;96-B(6):829-36. Abstract
79. Romanò CL, Logoluso N, Meani E, et al. A comparative study of the use of bioactive glass S53P4 and antibiotic-loaded calcium-based bone substitutes in the treatment of chronic osteomyelitis: a retrospective comparative study. Bone Joint J. 2014 Jun;96-B(6):845-50. Abstract
80. McNally MA, Ferguson JY, Lau AC, et al. Single-stage treatment of chronic osteomyelitis with a new absorbable, gentamicin-loaded, calcium sulphate/hydroxyapatite biocomposite: a prospective series of 100 cases. Bone Joint J. 2016 Sep;98-B(9):1289-96. Abstract
81. Daculsi G, Passuti N. Effect of the macroporosity for osseous substitution of calcium phosphate ceramics. Biomaterials. 1990 Jul;11:86-7. Abstract
82. Blokhuis TJ, Termaat MF, den Boer FC, et al. Properties of calcium phosphate ceramics in relation to their in vivo behavior. J Trauma. 2000 Jan;48(1):179-86. Abstract
83. Campana V, Milano G, Pagano E, et al. Bone substitutes in orthopaedic surgery: from basic science to clinical practice. J Mater Sci Mater Med. 2014 Oct;25(10):2445-61.Full text Abstract
84. McNally M, Nagarajah K. Osteomyelitis. Orthop Trauma. 2010;24(6):416-29.
85. McNally MA, Small JO, Tofighi HG, et al. Two-stage management of chronic osteomyelitis of the long bones: the Belfast technique. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1993 May;75(3):375-80. Abstract
86. Cierny G 3rd, Zorn KE. Segmental tibial defects: comparing conventional and Ilizarov methodologies. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1994 Apr;(301):118-23. Abstract
87. Beals RK, Bryant RE. The treatment of chronic open osteomyelitis of the tibia in adults. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2005 Apr;(433):212-7. Abstract
88. Cierny G 3rd, DiPasquale D. Treatment of chronic infection. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2006;14(10 Spec No.):S105-10. Abstract
89. Tsang ST, Mills LA, Frantzias J, et al. Exchange nailing for nonunion of diaphyseal fractures of the tibia: our results and an analysis of the risk factors for failure. Bone Joint J. 2016 Apr;98-B(4):534-41.Full text Abstract
90. Mader JT, Ortiz M, Calhoun JH. Update on the diagnosis and management of osteomyelitis. Clin Podiatr Med Surg. 1996 Oct;13(4):701-24. Abstract
91. Goldman, RJ. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy for wound healing and limb salvage: a systematic review. PM R. 2009;1:471-489. Abstract
92. Mooney JF 3rd, Argenta LC, Marks MW, et al. Treatment of soft tissue defects in pediatric patients using the V.A.C. system. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2000;376:26-31. Abstract
93. Webb LX, Wagner W, Carroll D, et al. Osteomyelitis and intraosteoblastic Staphylococcus aureus. J Surg Orthop Adv. 2007;16:73-78. Abstract
94. Ellington JK, Harris M, Hudson MC, et al. Intracellular Staphylococcus aureus and antibiotic resistance: implications for treatment of staphylococcal osteomyelitis. J Orthop Res. 2006;24:87-93. Abstract
95. Rao N, Crossett LS, Sinha RK, et al. Long-term suppression of infection in total joint arthroplasty. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2003;414:55-60. Abstract
96. Slover CM, Rodvold KA, Danziger LH. Tigecycline: a novel broad-spectrum antimicrobial. Ann Pharmacother. 2007;41:965-972. Abstract
97. Rice DA, Mendez-Vigo L. Daptomycin in bone and joint infections: a review of the literature. Arch Orthop Trauma Surg. 2009:129:1495-1504. Abstract
98. Razonable RR, Osmon DR, Steckelberg JM. Linezolid therapy for orthopedic infections. Mayo Clin Proc. 2004;79:1137-1144. Abstract
99. Rayner CR, Baddour LM, Birmingham MC, et al. Linezolid in treatment of osteomyelitis: results of compassionate use experience. Infection. 2004;32:8-14. Abstract
100. Rao N, Ziran BH, Hall RA, et al. Successful treatment of chronic bone and joint infections with oral Linezolid. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2004;427:67-71. Abstract
101. Rao N, Hamilton CW. Efficacy and safety of Linezolid for Gram-positive orthopedic infections: a prospective case series. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2007;59:173-179. Abstract
102. Lamp KC, Friedrich LV, Mendez-Vigo L, et al. Clinical experience with daptomycin for the treatment of patients with osteomyelitis. Am J Med. 2007;120(Suppl 1):S13-S20. Abstract
103. Holtom PD, Zalavras CG, Lamp KC, et al. Clinical experience with daptomycin treatment of foot or ankle osteomyelitis: a preliminary study. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2007;461:35-39. Abstract
104. Crompton JA, North DS, McConnell SA, et al. Safety and efficacy of daptomycin in the treatment of osteomyelitis: results from the CORE Registry. J Chemother. 2009;21:414-420. Abstract
105. hiappini E, Conti C, Galli L, et al. Clinical efficacy and tolerability of linezolid in pediatric patients: a systematic review. Clin Ther. 2010;32:66-88. Abstract
106. Graham DR, Keldermans MM, Klemm LW, et al. Infectious complications among patients receiving home intravenous therapy with peripheral, central, or peripherally placed central venous catheters. Am J Med. 1991 Sep 16;91(3B):95S-100S. Abstract
107. Evans RP, Nelson CL, Harrison BH. The effect of wound environment on the incidence of acute osteomyelitis. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1993 Jan;(286):289-97. Abstract
Use of this content is subject to our disclaimer