病史和体格检查是对可能罹患阑尾炎患者进行评估的初步方法。[2]Itskowitz MS, Jones SM. Appendicitis. Emerg Med. 2004;36:10-5. 在美国,常规做法要求对具有急性阑尾炎特征的急诊患者进行计算机体层成像(computed tomography, CT)扫描。[25]Bendeck SE, Nino-Murcia M, Berry GJ, et al. Imaging for suspected appendicitis: negative appendectomy and perforation rates. Radiology. 2002 Oct;225(1):131-6.
http://pubs.rsna.org/doi/full/10.1148/radiol.2251011780
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12354996?tool=bestpractice.com
经过验证的临床决策工具,例如 Alvarado 评分,具有较高敏感性,可用于排除阑尾炎,但缺乏特异性。[26]Alvarado A. A practical score for the early diagnosis of acute appendicitis. Ann Emerg Med. 1986 May;15(5):557-64.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3963537?tool=bestpractice.com
[27]Kularatna M, Lauti M, Haran C, et al. Clinical prediction rules for appendicitis in adults: which is best? World J Surg. 2017 Jul;41(7):1769-81.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28258458?tool=bestpractice.com
[28]Frountzas M, Stergios K, Kopsini D, et al. Alvarado or RIPASA score for diagnosis of acute appendicitis? A meta-analysis of randomized trials. Int J Surg. 2018 Aug;56:307-14.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30017607?tool=bestpractice.com
若为妊娠患者,则建议行腹部超声或磁共振成像(magnetic resonance imaging, MRI)检查。[29]American College of Radiology. ACR appropriateness criteria: right lower quadrant pain - suspected appendicitis. 2018 [internet publication].
https://www.acr.org/Quality-Safety/Appropriateness-Criteria
[30]Di Saverio S, Birindelli A, Kelly MD, et al. WSES Jerusalem guidelines for diagnosis and treatment of acute appendicitis. World J Emerg Surg. 2016 Jul 18;11:34.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4949879
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27437029?tool=bestpractice.com
育龄期女性应行盆腔检查以除外其他盆腔病变。[31]Basaran A, Basaran M. Diagnosis of acute appendicitis during pregnancy: a systematic review. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 2009 Jul;64(7):481-8.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19545456?tool=bestpractice.com
病史
腹痛是常见的主诉。疼痛通常起始于中腹部然后(1 至 12 小时后)转移到右下腹。疼痛通常为持续性,伴间歇性腹绞痛,活动时或咳嗽时加重。
疼痛的位置可随阑尾位置的不同而变化:
厌食是另一个重要的症状,在急性阑尾炎时,几乎总是存在该症状。[32]Hardin DM. Acute appendicitis: review and update. Am Fam Physician. 1999 Nov 1;60(7):2027-34.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10569505?tool=bestpractice.com
若无食欲不振的症状,急性阑尾炎的诊断是存疑的。恶心和呕吐也见于 75% 的患者。[32]Hardin DM. Acute appendicitis: review and update. Am Fam Physician. 1999 Nov 1;60(7):2027-34.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10569505?tool=bestpractice.com
绝对便秘(absolute constipation;无法排便和排气)是一种晚期表现。
95% 的急性阑尾炎患者通常以厌食起病,继而出现腹痛和随后的呕吐。[32]Hardin DM. Acute appendicitis: review and update. Am Fam Physician. 1999 Nov 1;60(7):2027-34.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10569505?tool=bestpractice.com
然而,在妊娠患者中,与阑尾炎的诊断显著相关的特征只有恶心、呕吐和局部腹膜炎。[33]Brown JJ, Wilson C, Coleman S, Joypaul BV. Appendicitis in pregnancy: an ongoing diagnostic dilemma. Colorectal Dis. 2009 Feb;11(2):116-22.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18513191?tool=bestpractice.com
症状持续时间越长,阑尾炎并发症(穿孔或腹腔内脓肿)的可能性越大且年龄更大的患者(大于 50 岁)中出现并发症的可能性更大。[34]Temple CL, Shirley AH, Temple WJ. The natural history of appendicitis in adults: a prospective study. Ann Surg. 1995 Mar;221(3):278-81.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1234570
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7717781?tool=bestpractice.com
[35]Franz MG, Norman J, Fabri PJ. Increased morbidity of appendicitis with advancing age. Am Surg. 1995 Jan;61(1):40-4.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7832380?tool=bestpractice.com
体格检查
通常,生命体征不会明显变化。体温可能轻度升高(平均1℃ [1.8℉])。如果患者表现为高热,应考虑其他诊断。[36]Berry J, Malt RA. Appendicitis near its centenary. Ann Surg. 1984 Nov;200(5):567-75.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1250537
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6385879?tool=bestpractice.com
心动过速也可能出现。[37]Humes DJ, Simpson J. Acute appendicitis. BMJ. 2006 Sep 9;333(7567):530-4.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1562475
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16960208?tool=bestpractice.com
如果阑尾位于盲肠前部,典型的体征是右下腹压痛(麦氏征)和局限性反跳痛。按压左下腹后,右下腹也可能出现疼痛(Rovsing 征)。
患者左侧卧位,缓慢后伸右大腿造成髂腰肌紧张时,可能引出右下腹疼痛(腰大肌征),或右大腿屈曲内旋时也可能引出(闭孔内肌征)。
肠鸣音可能减弱,跟左腹相比,右腹会尤其明显。
如果阑尾位于不典型的解剖位置,可无典型的腹部发现。
穿孔的患者可能出现严重不适,伴有低血压、心动过速、腹肌紧张、腹胀和广泛性腹部肌卫、肠鸣音减弱。
穿孔阑尾被大网膜包裹形成阑尾周围脓肿,腹部可触及包块。
检查
所有腹部不适患者均应行全血细胞计数检查。通常出现白细胞计数轻度增高(10 至 18 x 10⁹/L 或 10,000 至 18,000/μL)伴中性粒细胞计数升高。
通常需要进行某种形式的影像学检查。绝大部分以腹痛就诊于急诊室、疑诊阑尾炎的非妊娠期患者需行腹部和盆腔 CT 扫描。[29]American College of Radiology. ACR appropriateness criteria: right lower quadrant pain - suspected appendicitis. 2018 [internet publication].
https://www.acr.org/Quality-Safety/Appropriateness-Criteria
[30]Di Saverio S, Birindelli A, Kelly MD, et al. WSES Jerusalem guidelines for diagnosis and treatment of acute appendicitis. World J Emerg Surg. 2016 Jul 18;11:34.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4949879
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27437029?tool=bestpractice.com
术前进行腹部 CT 扫描(孕妇行超声或 MRI 检查)已成为惯常的标准诊疗。尤其是女性和儿童,可从术前影像学检查中获益。[25]Bendeck SE, Nino-Murcia M, Berry GJ, et al. Imaging for suspected appendicitis: negative appendectomy and perforation rates. Radiology. 2002 Oct;225(1):131-6.
http://pubs.rsna.org/doi/full/10.1148/radiol.2251011780
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12354996?tool=bestpractice.com
[38]Bachur RG, Callahan MJ, Monuteaux MC, et al. Integration of ultrasound findings and a clinical score in the diagnostic evaluation of pediatric appendicitis. J Pediatr. 2015 May;166(5):1134-9.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25708690?tool=bestpractice.com
[39]Benabbas R, Hanna M, Shah J, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of history, physical examination, laboratory tests, and point-of-care ultrasound for pediatric acute appendicitis in the emergency department: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Acad Emerg Med. 2017 May;24(5):523-51.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/acem.13181
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28214369?tool=bestpractice.com
影像学检查方式选择
尽管对于阑尾炎诊断,CT 扫描敏感性和特异性均高于超声检查,但后者容易施行、可快速检查且可在床旁进行。[40]Fox JC, Solley M, Zlidenny A, et al. Bedside ultrasound for appendicitis. Acad Emerg Med. 2005;12:76.[41]Terasawa T, Blackmore CC, Bent S, et al. Systematic review: computed tomography and ultrasonography to detect acute appendicitis in adults and adolescents. Ann Intern Med. 2004 Oct 5;141(7):537-46.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15466771?tool=bestpractice.com
[42]Dahabreh IJ, Adam GP, Halladay CW, et al. Diagnosis of right lower quadrant pain and suspected acute appendicitis. In: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (US). AHRQ Comparative effectiveness reviews report no. 15(16)-EHC025-EF. 2015. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (US).
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK355441
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27054223?tool=bestpractice.com
[43]Fox JC, Solley M, Zlidenny A, et al. Bedside ultrasound for Appendicitis. Acad Emerg Med. 2005;12:76. 对于儿童,为了限制辐射暴露,可能优选超声检查,而非 CT 扫描。有证据表明,儿童行超声检查的敏感性和特异性均强于成人。[38]Bachur RG, Callahan MJ, Monuteaux MC, et al. Integration of ultrasound findings and a clinical score in the diagnostic evaluation of pediatric appendicitis. J Pediatr. 2015 May;166(5):1134-9.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25708690?tool=bestpractice.com
[44]Eng KA, Abadeh A, Ligocki C, et al. Acute appendicitis: a meta-analysis of the diagnostic accuracy of US, CT, and MRI as second-line imaging tests after an initial US. Radiology. 2018 Sep;288(3):717-27.
https://pubs.rsna.org/doi/10.1148/radiol.2018180318?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori%3Arid%3Acrossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%3Dpubmed
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29916776?tool=bestpractice.com
[45]Zhang H, Liao M, Chen J, et al. Ultrasound, computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging - which is preferred for acute appendicitis in children? A Meta-analysis. Pediatr Radiol. 2017 Feb;47(2):186-96.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27815615?tool=bestpractice.com
如果超声可见全长的正常阑尾,则可以排除急性阑尾炎。然而,这并不多见,超声检查的最大用途在于探明有无引起腹痛的其他原因,排除阑尾炎。[46]Puylaert JB. Imaging and intervention in patients with acute right lower quadrant disease. Baillieres Clin Baillieres Clin Gastroenterol. 1995 Mar;9(1):37-51.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7772814?tool=bestpractice.com
阑尾 CT 扫描越来越多地被用作急性阑尾炎的初始诊断性检查,在美国,对于有急性阑尾炎特征的急诊患者,进行 CT 扫描是常规做法。[25]Bendeck SE, Nino-Murcia M, Berry GJ, et al. Imaging for suspected appendicitis: negative appendectomy and perforation rates. Radiology. 2002 Oct;225(1):131-6.
http://pubs.rsna.org/doi/full/10.1148/radiol.2251011780
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12354996?tool=bestpractice.com
表现不典型的患者同样需要做 CT 检查。[29]American College of Radiology. ACR appropriateness criteria: right lower quadrant pain - suspected appendicitis. 2018 [internet publication].
https://www.acr.org/Quality-Safety/Appropriateness-Criteria
[47]American College of Radiology. ACR Appropriateness Criteria: acute nonlocalized abdominal pain. 2018 [internet publication].
https://acsearch.acr.org/docs/69467/Narrative
但是,推测为阑尾炎者行 CT 扫描后,若手术延迟,则可能引起阑尾穿孔率增加。[48]Musunuru S, Chen H, Rikkers LF, et al. Computed tomography in the diagnosis of acute appendicitis: definitive or detrimental? J Gastrointest Surg. 2007 Nov;11(11):1417-21; discussion 1421-2.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17701439?tool=bestpractice.com
静脉造影剂增强 CT 扫描(联合或不联合使用口服造影剂)的敏感性高达 100%,相比而言,非静脉造影剂增强 CT 扫描的敏感性为 92%。[49]Chiu YH, Chen JD, Wang SH, et al. Whether intravenous contrast is necessary for CT diagnosis of acute appendicitis in adult ED patients? Acad Radiol. 2013 Jan;20(1):73-8.
https://www.academicradiology.org/article/S1076-6332(12)00385-6/fulltext
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22951113?tool=bestpractice.com
[50]Hlibczuk V, Dattaro JA, Jin Z, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of noncontrast computed tomography for appendicitis in adults: a systematic review. Ann Emerg Med. 2010 Jan;55(1):51-9.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19733421?tool=bestpractice.com
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 腹部 CT:增厚的阑尾Nasim Ahmed, MBBS, FACS;经许可后使用 [Citation ends].
具有阑尾炎特征的孕妇,应行腹部超声检查探查阑尾。如果依据超声检查无法确定诊断,则可进行腹部 MRI 检查(尤其是在妊娠早期)。[31]Basaran A, Basaran M. Diagnosis of acute appendicitis during pregnancy: a systematic review. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 2009 Jul;64(7):481-8.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19545456?tool=bestpractice.com
[29]American College of Radiology. ACR appropriateness criteria: right lower quadrant pain - suspected appendicitis. 2018 [internet publication].
https://www.acr.org/Quality-Safety/Appropriateness-Criteria
排除其他原因的检查
应行尿液分析以排除可能的泌尿道感染或肾绞痛。性活跃的育龄期女性应行尿液妊娠试验。