Snake bites

Dart RC. Reptile bites. In: Tintinalli JE, Ma OJ, Cline DM, eds. Tintinalli's emergency medicine: a comprehensive study guide. 6th ed. Chapel Hill, NC: McGraw-Hill; 2004.

O'Neil ME, Mack KA, Gilchrist J, et al. Snakebite injuries treated in United States emergency departments, 2001-2004. Wilderness Environ Med. 2007 Winter;18(4):281-7. Abstract

Morandi N, Williams J. Snakebite injuries: contributing factors and intentionality of exposure. Wilderness Environ Med. 1997 Aug;8(3):152-5. Abstract

Kanaan NC, Ray J, Stewart M, et al. Wilderness Medical Society practice guidelines for the treatment of pitviper envenomations in the United States and Canada. Wilderness Environ Med. 2015 Dec;26(4):472-87.Full text  Abstract

Singletary EM, Charlton NP, Epstein JL, et al. Part 15: first aid: 2015 American Heart Association and American Red Cross guidelines update for first aid. Circulation. 2015 Nov 3;132(18 suppl 2):S574-89.Full text  Abstract

Lavonas EJ, Ruha AM, Banner W, et al. Unified treatment algorithm for the management of crotaline snakebite in the United States: results of an evidence-informed consensus workshop. BMC Emerg Med. 2011 Feb 3;11:2.Full text  Abstract

Spiller HA, Bosse GM. Prospective study of morbidity associated with snakebite envenomation. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol. 2003;41(2):125-30. Abstract

1. Dart RC. Reptile bites. In: Tintinalli JE, Ma OJ, Cline DM, eds. Tintinalli's emergency medicine: a comprehensive study guide. 6th ed. Chapel Hill, NC: McGraw-Hill; 2004.

2. Sanchez EE, Lopez-Johnston JC, Rodríguez-Acosta A, et al. Neutralization of two North American coral snake venoms with United States and Mexican antivenoms. Toxicon. 2008 Feb;51(2):297-303.Full text  Abstract

3. Otten EJ. Venomous animal injuries. In: Marx JA, Walls RM, eds. Rosen's emergency medicine: concepts and clinical practice. 6th ed. St. Louis, MO: Mosby, Inc; 2006.

4. O'Neil ME, Mack KA, Gilchrist J, et al. Snakebite injuries treated in United States emergency departments, 2001-2004. Wilderness Environ Med. 2007 Winter;18(4):281-7. Abstract

5. Mowry JB, Spyker DA, Cantilena LR Jr, et al. 2012 annual report of the American Association of Poison Control Centers' National Poison Data System (NPDS): 30th annual report. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2013 Dec;51(10):949-1229.Full text  Abstract

6. Mowry JB, Spyker DA, Cantilena LR Jr, et al. 2013 annual report of the American Association of Poison Control Centers' National Poison Data System (NPDS): 31st annual report. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2014 Dec;52(10):1032-283.Full text  Abstract

7. Mowry JB, Spyker DA, Brooks DE, et al. 2014 annual report of the American Association of Poison Control Centers' National Poison Data System (NPDS): 32nd annual report. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2015;53(10):962-1147.Full text  Abstract

8. Mowry JB, Spyker DA, Brooks DE, et al. 2015 annual report of the American Association of Poison Control Centers' National Poison Data System (NPDS): 33rd annual report. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2016 Dec;54(10):924-1109. Abstract

9. Gummin DD, Mowry JB, Spyker DA, et al. 2016 annual report of the American Association of Poison Control Centers' National Poison Data System (NPDS): 34th annual report. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2017 Dec;55(10):1072-252.Full text  Abstract

10. Ruha AM, Kleinschmidt KC, Greene S, et al; ToxIC Snakebite Study Group. The epidemiology, clinical course, and management of snakebites in the North American Snakebite Registry. 2017 Dec;13(4):309-20.Full text  Abstract

11. Harmon KJ, Haskell MG, Mann CH, et al. Snakebites treated in North Carolina emergency departments, October 2013-September 2015. Wilderness Environ Med. 2018 Jun;29(2):176-84.Full text  Abstract

12. Cruz LS, Vargas R, Lopes AA. Snakebite envenomation and death in the developing world. Ethn Dis. 2009 Spring;19(1 suppl 1):S1-42-6. Abstract

13. World Health Organization. Snakebite envenoming. May 2021 [internet publication].Full text

14. Morandi N, Williams J. Snakebite injuries: contributing factors and intentionality of exposure. Wilderness Environ Med. 1997 Aug;8(3):152-5. Abstract

15. Suntorntham S. Occupationally-related snakebite. In: Greenberg MI, Hamilton RJ, Phillips SD, et al, eds. Occupational, industrial, and environmental toxicology. St. Louis, MO: Mosby, Inc; 2003.

16. Dart RC. Reptile bites. In: Tintinalli JE, Ma OJ, Cline DM, eds. Tintinalli's emergency medicine: a comprehensive study guide. 6th ed. Chapel Hill, NC: McGraw-Hill; 2004.

17. Tan NH, Ponnudurai G. The biological properties of venoms of some American coral snakes (Genus micrurus). Comp Biochem Physiol B. 1992 Mar;101(3):471-4. Abstract

18. Weis R, McIsaac RJ. Cardiovascular and muscular effects of venom from coral snake, Micrurus fulvius. oxicon. 1971 Jul;9(3):219-28. Abstract

19. O'Neil ME, Mack KA, Gilchrist J, et al. Snakebite injuries treated in United States emergency departments, 2001-2004. Wilderness Environ Med. 2007 Winter;18(4):281-7. Abstract

20. Morandi N, Williams J. Snakebite injuries: contributing factors and intentionality of exposure. Wilderness Environ Med. 1997 Aug;8(3):152-5. Abstract

21. Herbert SS, Hayes WK. Denim clothing reduces venom expenditure by rattlesnakes striking defensively at model human limbs. Ann Emerg Med. 2009 Dec;54(6):830-6. Abstract

22. Information from your family doctor: snakebite prevention and first aid. Am Fam Physician. 2002 Apr 1;65(7):1377. Abstract

23. Kanaan NC, Ray J, Stewart M, et al. Wilderness Medical Society practice guidelines for the treatment of pitviper envenomations in the United States and Canada. Wilderness Environ Med. 2015 Dec;26(4):472-87.Full text  Abstract

24. Prakash S, Mathew C, Bhagat S. Locked-in syndrome in snakebite. J Assoc Physicians India. 2008 Feb;56:121-2. Abstract

25. Herman RS. Nonvenomous snakebite. Ann Emerg Med. 1988 Nov;17(11):1262-3. Abstract

26. Jagannathan M, Babu ND, Saple A, et al. Deadly perfection of nature - can we ever duplicate it? Br J Plast Surg. 2000 Mar;53(2):176. Abstract

27. O'Brien CM, Heppell S, Khan U, et al, The 'deadly perfection of nature' - duplicated continents apart! Br J Plast Surg. 2000 Jul;53(5):451-2. Abstract

28. Hardy DL. Fatal rattlesnake envenomation in Arizona: 1969-1984. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol. 1986;24(1):1-10. Abstract

29. Kitchens CS, Van Mierop LH. Envenomation by the eastern coral snake (Micrurus fulvius fulvius): a study of 39 victims. JAMA. 1987 Sep 25;258(12):1615-8. Abstract

30. Norris RL, Dart RC. Apparent coral snake envenomation in a patient without visible fang marks. Am J Emerg Med. 1989 Jul;7(4):402-5. Abstract

31. Gaballa M, Taher T, Brodin LA, et al. Images in cardiovascular medicine. Myocardial infarction as a rare consequence of a snakebite: diagnosis with novel echocardiographic tissue Doppler techniques. Circulation. 2005 Sep 13;112(11):e140-2.Full text  Abstract

32. Saadeh AM. Case report: acute myocardial infarction complicating a viper bite. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2001 May-Jun;64(5-6):280-2. Abstract

33. Hafeez S, Majeed I. Cardiac arrhythmia as presentation of snakebite. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak. 2004 Jan;14(1):48-9. Abstract

34. German BT, Hack JB, Brewer K, et al. Pressure-immobilization bandages delay toxicity in a porcine model of eastern coral snake (Micrurus fulvius fulvius) envenomation. Ann Emerg Med. 2005 Jun;45(6):603-8. Abstract

35. Bush SP, Green SM, Laack TA, et al. Pressure immobilization delays mortality and increases intracompartmental pressure after artificial intramuscular rattlesnake envenomation in a porcine model. Ann Emerg Med. 2004 Dec;44(6):599-604. Abstract

36. Meggs WJ, Courtney C, O'Rourke D, Brewer KL. Pilot studies of pressure-immobilization bandages for rattlesnake envenomations. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2010 Jan;48(1):61-3. Abstract

37. Parker-Cote J, Meggs WJ. First aid and pre-hospital management of venomous snakebites. Trop Med Infect Dis. 2018 Apr 24;3(2):E45.Full text  Abstract

38. Howarth DM, Southee AE, Whyte IM. Lymphatic flow rates and first-aid in simulated peripheral snake or spider envenomation. Med J Aust. 1994 Dec 5-19;161(11-12):695-700. Abstract

39. Singletary EM, Charlton NP, Epstein JL, et al. Part 15: first aid: 2015 American Heart Association and American Red Cross guidelines update for first aid. Circulation. 2015 Nov 3;132(18 suppl 2):S574-89.Full text  Abstract

40. Canale E, Isbister GK, Currie BJ. Investigating pressure bandaging for snakebite in a simulated setting: bandage type, training and the effect of transport. Emerg Med Australas. 2009 Jun;21(3):184-90. Abstract

41. Watson WA, Litovitz TL, Klein-Schwartz W, et al. 2003 annual report of the American Association of Poison Control Centers Toxic Exposure Surveillance System. Am J Emerg Med. 2004 Sep;22(5):335-404. Abstract

42. Blaylock RS. Antibiotic use and infection in snakebite victims. S Afr Med J. 1999 Aug;89(8):874-6. Abstract

43. Weed HG. Nonvenomous snakebite in Massachusetts: prophylactic antibiotics are unnecessary. Ann Emerg Med. 1993 Feb;22(2):220-4. Abstract

44. Campbell BT, Corsi JM, Boneti C, et al. Pediatric snakebites: lessons learned from 114 cases. J Pediatr Surg. 2008 Jul;43(7):1338-41. Abstract

45. Thorson A, Lavonas EJ, Rouse AM, et al. Copperhead envenomations in the Carolinas. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol. 2003;41(1):29-35. Abstract

46. Spiller HA, Bosse GM. Prospective study of morbidity associated with snakebite envenomation. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol. 2003;41(2):125-30. Abstract

47. Lavonas EJ, Schaeffer TH, Kokko J, et al. Crotaline Fab antivenom appears to be effective in cases of severe North American pit viper envenomation: an integrative review. BMC Emerg Med. 2009 Jun 22;9:13.Full text  Abstract

48. Johnson PN, McGoodwin L, Banner W Jr. Utilisation of Crotalidae polyvalent immune fab (ovine) for Viperidae envenomations in children. Emerg Med J. 2008 Dec;25(12):793-8. Abstract

49. Lavonas EJ, Khatri V, Daugherty C, et al. Medically significant late bleeding after treated crotaline envenomation: a systematic review. Ann Emerg Med. 2014 Jan;63(1):71-8. Abstract

50. Miller AD, Young MC, DeMott MC, et al. Recurrent coagulopathy and thrombocytopenia in children treated with crotalidae polyvalent immune fab: a case series. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2010 Aug;26(8):576-82. Abstract

51. Tanen DA, Danish DC, Grice GA, et al. Fasciotomy worsens the amount of myonecrosis in a porcine model of crotaline envenomation. Ann Emerg Med. 2004 Aug;44(2):99-104. Abstract

52. Dart RC. Can steel heal a compartment syndrome caused by rattlesnake venom? Ann Emerg Med. 2004 Aug;44(2):105-7. Abstract

53. Fulton JA, Hoffman RS. Fasciotomy after envenomation: measure twice and cut once. Ann Emerg Med. 2005 Mar;45(3):338-9. Abstract

54. Isbister GK, Buckley NA, Page CB, et al. A randomized controlled trial of fresh frozen plasma for treating venom-induced consumption coagulopathy in cases of Australian snakebite (ASP-18). J Thromb Haemost. 2013 Jul;11(7):1310-8.Full text  Abstract

55. Brown SG, Caruso N, Borland ML, et al. Clotting factor replacement and recovery from snake venom-induced consumptive coagulopathy. Intensive Care Med. 2009 Sep;35(9):1532-8. Abstract

56. Singletary EM, Charlton NP, Epstein JL, et al. Part 15: first aid: 2015 American Heart Association and American Red Cross guidelines update for first aid. Circulation. 2015 Nov 3;132(18 suppl 2):S574-89.Full text  Abstract

57. Kanaan NC, Ray J, Stewart M, et al. Wilderness Medical Society practice guidelines for the treatment of pitviper envenomations in the United States and Canada. Wilderness Environ Med. 2015 Dec;26(4):472-87.Full text  Abstract

58. Lavonas EJ, Ruha AM, Banner W, et al. Unified treatment algorithm for the management of crotaline snakebite in the United States: results of an evidence-informed consensus workshop. BMC Emerg Med. 2011 Feb 3;11:2.Full text  Abstract

59. Langley RL. Animal-related fatalities in the United States - an update. Wilderness Environ Med. 2005 Summer;16(2):67-74. Abstract

60. Spiller HA, Bosse GM. Prospective study of morbidity associated with snakebite envenomation. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol. 2003;41(2):125-30. Abstract

61. Norris RL, Pfalzgraf RR, Laing G. Death following coral snake bite in the United States - first documented case (with ELISA confirmation of envenomation) in over 40 years. Toxicon. 2009 May;53(6):693-7. Abstract