References
Key articles
Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes. KDIGO 2012 clinical practice guideline for the evaluation and management of chronic kidney disease. Jan 2013 [internet publication].Full text
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Chronic kidney disease in adults: assessment and management. Jan 2021 [internet publication].Full text
Reference articles
1. Viswanathan G, Upadhyay A. Assessment of proteinuria. Adv Chronic Kidney Dis. 2011 Jul;18(4):243-8. Abstract
2. Montañés Bermúdez R, Gràcia García S, Pérez Surribas D, et al. Consensus document. Recommendations on assessing proteinuria during the diagnosis and follow-up of chronic kidney disease. Nefrologia. 2011;31(3):331-45. Abstract
3. Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes. KDIGO 2012 clinical practice guideline for the evaluation and management of chronic kidney disease. Jan 2013 [internet publication].Full text
4. Levey AS, de Jong PE, Coresh J, et al. The definition, classification, and prognosis of chronic kidney disease: a KDIGO Controversies Conference report. Kidney Int. 2011 Jul;80(1):17-28. Abstract
5. Chronic Kidney Disease Prognosis Consortium; Matsushita K, van der Velde M, Astor BC, et al. Association of estimated glomerular filtration rate and albuminuria with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in general population cohorts: a collaborative meta-analysis. Lancet. 2010 Jun 12;375(9731):2073-81. Abstract
6. Astor BC, Matsushita K, Gansevoort RT, et al. Lower estimated glomerular filtration rate and higher albuminuria are associated with mortality and end-stage renal disease. A collaborative meta-analysis of kidney disease population cohorts. Kidney Int. 2011 Jun;79(12):1331-40. Abstract
7. van der Velde M, Matsushita K, Coresh J, et al. Lower estimated glomerular filtration rate and higher albuminuria are associated with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality. A collaborative meta-analysis of high-risk population cohorts. Kidney Int. 2011 Jun;79(12):1341-52. Abstract
8. Gansevoort RT, Matsushita K, van der Velde M, et al. Lower estimated GFR and higher albuminuria are associated with adverse kidney outcomes. A collaborative meta-analysis of general and high-risk population cohorts. Kidney Int. 2011 Jul;80(1):93-104. Abstract
9. British Medical Journal. Low eGFR and high albuminuria predict end stage kidney disease and death at all ages. BMJ. 2012 Nov 7;345:e7478. Abstract
10. Harrison TG, Tam-Tham H, Hemmelgarn BR, et al. Change in proteinuria or albuminuria as a surrogate for cardiovascular and other major clinical outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Can J Cardiol. 2019 Jan;35(1):77-91. Abstract
11. Huang R, Chen X. Increased spot urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio and stroke incidence: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis. 2019 Oct;28(10):104260. Abstract
12. Han SS, Ahn SY, Ryu J, et al. Proteinuria and hematuria are associated with acute kidney injury and mortality in critically ill patients: a retrospective observational study. BMC Nephrol. 2014 Jun 18;15:93.Full text Abstract
13. Lin LY, Jenq CC, Liu CS, et al. Proteinuria can predict short-term prognosis in critically ill cirrhotic patients. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2014 Apr;48(4):377-82. Abstract
14. Borrego J, Mazuecos A, Gentil MA, et al. Proteinuria as a predictive factor in the evolution of kidney transplantation. Transplant Proc. 2013;45(10):3627-9. Abstract
15. Lewis EJ, Hunsicker LG, Bain RP, et al. The effect of angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibition on diabetic nephropathy. N Engl J Med. 1993 Nov 11;329(20):1456-62.Full text Abstract
16. The GISEN Group. Randomised placebo-controlled trial of effect of ramipril on decline in glomerular filtration rate and risk of terminal renal failure in proteinuric, non-diabetic nephropathy. Lancet. 1997 Jun 28;349(9069):1857-63. Abstract
17. Brenner BM, Cooper ME, de Zeeuw D, et al. Effects of losartan on renal and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes and nephropathy. N Engl J Med. 2001 Sep 20;345(12):861-9.Full text Abstract
18. Lewis EJ, Hunsicker LG, Clarke WR, et al. Renoprotective effect of the angiotensin-receptor antagonist irbesartan in patients with nephropathy due to type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2001 Sep 20;345(12):851-60.Full text Abstract
19. Parving HH, Lehnert H, Bröchner-Mortensen J, et al; Irbesartan in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes and Microalbuminuria Study Group. The effect of irbesartan on the development of diabetic nephropathy in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2001 Sep 20;345(12):870-8.Full text Abstract
20. Wright JT Jr, Bakris G, Greene T, et al. Effect of blood pressure lowering and antihypertensive drug class on progression of hypertensive kidney disease: results from the AASK trial. JAMA. 2002 Nov 20;288(19):2421-31.Full text Abstract
21. Inker LA, Levey AS, Pandya K, et al. Early change in proteinuria as a surrogate end point for kidney disease progression: an individual patient meta-analysis. Am J Kidney Dis. 2014 Jul;64(1):74-85. Abstract
22. Carroll MF, Temte JL. Proteinuria in adults: a diagnostic approach. Am Fam Physician. 2000 Sep 15;62(6):1333-40.Full text Abstract
23. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Chronic kidney disease in adults: assessment and management. Jan 2021 [internet publication].Full text
24. Afkarian M, Zelnick LR, Hall YN, et al. Clinical manifestations of kidney disease among US adults with diabetes, 1988-2014. JAMA. 2016 Aug 9;316(6):602-10.Full text Abstract
25. Astor BC, Hallan SI, Miller ER 3rd, et al. Glomerular filtration rate, albuminuria, and risk of cardiovascular and all-cause mortality in the US population. Am J Epidemiol. 2008 May 15;167(10):1226-34.Full text Abstract
26. Comper WD, Osicka TM. Detection of urinary albumin. Adv Chronic Kidney Dis. 2005 Apr;12(2):170-6. Abstract
27. McTaggart MP, Newall RG, Hirst JA, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of point-of-care tests for detecting albuminuria: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. 2014 Apr 15;160(8):550-7. Abstract
28. Wu HY, Peng YS, Chiang CK, et al. Diagnostic performance of random urine samples using albumin concentration vs ratio of albumin to creatinine for microalbuminuria screening in patients with diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Intern Med. 2014 Jul;174(7):1108-15. Abstract
29. Ginsberg JM, Chang BS, Matarese RA, et al. Use of single voided urine samples to estimate quantitative proteinuria. N Engl J Med. 1983 Dec 22;309(25):1543-6. Abstract
30. Valdés E, Sepúlveda-Martínez Á, Tong A, et al. Assessment of protein:creatinine ratio versus 24-hour urine protein in the diagnosis of preeclampsia. Gynecol Obstet Invest. 2016;81(1):78-83. Abstract
31. Johnson DW, Jones GR, Mathew TH, et al. Chronic kidney disease and measurement of albuminuria or proteinuria: a position statement. Med J Aust. 2012 Aug 20;197(4):224-5.Full text Abstract
32. Papanna R, Mann LK, Kouides RW, et al. Protein/creatinine ratio in preeclampsia: a systematic review. Obstet Gynecol. 2008 Jul;112(1):135-44. Abstract
33. Côté AM, Brown MA, Lam E, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of urinary spot protein:creatinine ratio for proteinuria in hypertensive pregnant women: systematic review. BMJ. 2008 May 3;336(7651):1003-6.Full text Abstract
34. McFarlane P, Cherney D, Gilbert RE, et al. Diabetes Canada 2018 clinical practice guidelines for the prevention and management of diabetes in Canada: chronic kidney disease in diabetes. Can J Diabetes 2018;42(Suppl 1):S201-S209.Full text
35. Raman M, Green D, Middleton RJ, et al. Older people with chronic kidney disease: definition, and influence of biomarkers and medications upon cardiovascular and renal outcomes. J Ren Care. 2016 Sep;42(3):150-61. Abstract
36. Grams ME, Li L, Greene TH, et al. Estimating time to ESRD using kidney failure risk equations: results from the African American Study of Kidney Disease and Hypertension (AASK). Am J Kidney Dis. 2015 Mar;65(3):394-402. Abstract
37. Coresh J, Heerspink HJL, Sang Y, et al. Change in albuminuria and subsequent risk of end-stage kidney disease: an individual participant-level consortium meta-analysis of observational studies. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2019 Feb;7(2):115-127.Full text Abstract
38. Heerspink HJL, Greene T, Tighiouart H, et al. Change in albuminuria as a surrogate endpoint for progression of kidney disease: a meta-analysis of treatment effects in randomised clinical trials. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2019 Feb;7(2):128-139. Abstract
39. Springberg PD, Garrett LE Jr, Thompson AL Jr, et al. Fixed and reproducible orthostatic proteinuria: results of a 20-year follow up study. Ann Intern Med. 1982 Oct;97(4):516-9. Abstract
40. Hogg RJ, Portman RJ, Milliner D, et al. Evaluation and management of proteinuria and nephrotic syndrome in children: recommendations from a pediatric nephrology panel established at the National Kidney Foundation conference on proteinuria, albuminuria, risk assessment, detection, and elimination (PARADE). Pediatrics. 2000 Jun;105(6):1242-9. Abstract
41. Kee YK, Yoon CY, Kim SJ, et al. Determination of the optimal target level of proteinuria in the management of patients with glomerular diseases by using different definitions of proteinuria. Medicine (Baltimore). 2017 Nov;96(44):e8154.Full text Abstract
42. Peterson PA, Evrin PE, Berggard I. Differentiation of glomerular, tubular, and normal proteinuria: determinations of urinary excretion of beta-2-macroglobulin, albumin, and total protein. J Clin Invest. 1969 Jul;48(7):1189-98.Full text Abstract
43. Kim HH, Kim JY, Kim SJ, et al. Overflow proteinuria as a manifestation of unrecognized polymyositis. Int Med Case Rep J. 2014 Apr 1;7:71-4.Full text Abstract
44. Singhal R, Brimble KS. Thromboembolic complications in the nephrotic syndrome: pathophysiology and clinical management. Thromb Res. 2006;118(3):397-407. Abstract
45. Gestational Hypertension and Preeclampsia: ACOG Practice Bulletin, Number 222. Obstet Gynecol. 2020 Jun;135(6):e237-e260. Abstract
46. Jia N, Cormack FC, Xie B, et al. Collapsing focal segmental glomerulosclerosis following long-term treatment with oral ibandronate: case report and review of literature. BMC Cancer. 2015 Jul 22;15:535.Full text Abstract
47. Perazella MA, Markowitz GS. Bisphosphonate nephrotoxicity. Kidney Int. 2008 Dec;74(11):1385-93. Abstract
48. Karpinski J, Jothy S, Radoux V, et al. D-penicillamine-induced crescentic glomerulonephritis and antimyeloperoxidase antibodies in a patient with scleroderma. Case report and review of the literature. Am J Nephrol. 1997;17(6):528-32. Abstract
49. Luciano RL, Perazella MA. Aristolochic acid nephropathy: epidemiology, clinical presentation, and treatment. Drug Saf. 2015 Jan;38(1):55-64. Abstract
50. Guillevin L, Bérezné A, Seror R, et al. Scleroderma renal crisis: a retrospective multicentre study on 91 patients and 427 controls. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2012 Mar;51(3):460-7. Abstract
51. Zhao T, Wang X, Xu T, et al. Bevacizumab significantly increases the risks of hypertension and proteinuria in cancer patients: a systematic review and comprehensive meta-analysis. Oncotarget. 2017 May 23;8(31):51492-506.Full text Abstract
52. Dubrow A, Mittman N, Ghali V, et al. The changing spectrum of heroin-associated nephropathy. Am J Kidney Dis. 1985 Jan;5(1):36-41. Abstract
53. Roth D, Alarcón FJ, Fernandez JA, et al. Acute rhabdomyolysis associated with cocaine intoxication. N Engl J Med. 1988 Sep 15;319(11):673-7. Abstract
54. Guollo F, Narciso-Schiavon JL, Barotto AM, et al. Significance of alanine aminotransferase levels in patients admitted for cocaine intoxication. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2015 Mar;49(3):250-5. Abstract
55. Leung AK, Wong AH, Barg SS. Proteinuria in Children: Evaluation and Differential Diagnosis. Am Fam Physician. 2017 Feb 15;95(4):248-254.Full text Abstract
56. Kim Y, Yoon HE, Chung BH, et al. Clinical outcomes and effects of treatment in older patients with idiopathic membranous nephropathy. Korean J Intern Med. 2019 Sep;34(5):1091-1099.Full text Abstract
57. Mesquita M, Fosso C, Bakoto Sol E, et al. Renal biopsy findings in Belgium: a retrospective single center analysis. Acta Clin Belg. 2011 Mar-Apr;66(2):104-9. Abstract
58. Su S, Yu J, Wang Y, Wang Y, Li J, Xu Z. Clinicopathologic correlations of renal biopsy findings from northeast China: A 10-year retrospective study. Medicine (Baltimore). 2019 Jun;98(23):e15880.Full text Abstract
59. Kitiyakara C, Eggers P, Kopp JB. Twenty-one-year trend in ESRD due to focal segmental glomerulosclerosis in the United States. Am J Kidney Dis. 2004;44:815-825. Abstract
60. Hughson MD, Puelles VG, Hoy WE, Douglas-Denton RN, Mott SA, Bertram JF. Hypertension, glomerular hypertrophy and nephrosclerosis: the effect of race. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2014 Jul;29(7):1399-409.Full text Abstract
61. Schena FP, Nistor I. Epidemiology of IgA Nephropathy: A Global Perspective. Semin Nephrol. 2018 Sep;38(5):435-442. Abstract
62. Keane WF, Eknoyan G. Proteinuria, albuminuria, risk, assessment, detection, elimination (PARADE): a position paper of the National Kidney Foundation. Am J Kidney Dis. 1999 May;33(5):1004-10. Abstract
63. Thorp ML, Smith DH, Johnson ES, et al. Proteinuria among patients with chronic kidney disease: a performance measure for improving patient outcomes. Jt Comm J Qual Patient Saf. 2012 Jun;38(6):277-82. Abstract
64. Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, et al. Seventh report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. Hypertension. 2003 Dec;42(6):1206-52.Full text Abstract
65. American Diabetes Association Professional Practice Committee. 11. Chronic kidney disease and risk management: standards of care in diabetes-2024. Diabetes Care. 2024 Jan 1;47(suppl 1):S219-30.Full text Abstract
66. Lamb EJ, MacKenzie F, Stevens PE. How should proteinuria be detected and measured? Ann Clin Biochem. 2009 May;46(pt 3):205-17.Full text Abstract
67. American Diabetes Association Professional Practice Committee. 2. Diagnosis and classification of diabetes: standards of care in diabetes-2024. Diabetes Care. 2024 Jan 1;47(suppl 1):S20-42.Full text Abstract
Use of this content is subject to our disclaimer