Urinary tract infections in children

European Association of Urology. Guidelines on paediatric urology. 2023 [internet publication].Full text

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Urinary tract infection in under 16s: diagnosis and management. Jul 2022 [internet publication].Full text

Mattoo TK, Shaikh N, Nelson CP. Contemporary management of urinary tract infection in children. Pediatrics. 2021 Feb;147(2):e2020012138.Full text  Abstract

American College of Radiology. ACR appropriateness criteria: urinary tract infection - child. 2023 [internet publication].Full text

Peters CA, Skoog SJ, Arant BS Jr, et al; American Urological Association. Management and screening of primary vesicoureteral reflux in children: AUA guideline. 2017 [internet publication].Full text

1. European Association of Urology. Guidelines on paediatric urology. 2023 [internet publication].Full text

2. Shaikh N, Osio VA, Wessel CB, et al. Prevalence of asymptomatic bacteriuria in children: a meta-analysis. J Pediatr. 2020 Feb;217:110-7. Abstract

3. Fitzgerald A, Mori R, Lakhanpaul M. Interventions for covert bacteriuria in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012 Feb 15;(2):CD006943.Full text  Abstract

4. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Urinary tract infection in under 16s: diagnosis and management. Jul 2022 [internet publication].Full text

5. Mattoo TK, Shaikh N, Nelson CP. Contemporary management of urinary tract infection in children. Pediatrics. 2021 Feb;147(2):e2020012138.Full text  Abstract

6. Tola HH, Ranjbaran M, Omani-Samani R, et al. Prevalence of UTI among Iranian infants with prolonged jaundice, and its main causes: a systematic review and meta-analysis study. J Pediatr Urol. 2018 Apr;14(2):108-15. Abstract

7. Becknell B, Schober M, Korbel L, et al. The diagnosis, evaluation and treatment of acute and recurrent pediatric urinary tract infections. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2015 Jan;13(1):81-90.Full text  Abstract

8. Stein R, Dogan HS, Hoebeke P, et al. Urinary tract infections in children: EAU/ESPU guidelines. Eur Urol. 2015 Mar;67(3):546-58. Abstract

9. Spencer JD, Schwaderer A, McHugh K, et al. Pediatric urinary tract infections: an analysis of hospitalizations, charges, and costs in the USA. Pediatr Nephrol. 2010 Dec;25(12):2469-75.Full text  Abstract

10. Shaikh N, Morone NE, Bost JE, et al. Prevalence of urinary tract infection in childhood: a meta-analysis. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2008 Apr;27(4):302-8. Abstract

11. American College of Radiology. ACR appropriateness criteria: urinary tract infection - child. 2023 [internet publication].Full text

12. Gorelick MH, Shaw KN. Clinical decision rule to identify febrile young girls at risk for urinary tract infection. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2000 Apr;154(4):386-90.Full text  Abstract

13. Schmidt B, Copp HL. Work-up of pediatric urinary tract infection. Urol Clin North Am. 2015 Nov;42(4):519-26.Full text  Abstract

14. Lo DS, Shieh HH, Barreira ER, et al. High frequency of Staphylococcus saprophyticus urinary tract infections among female adolescents. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2015 Sep;34(9):1023-5.Full text  Abstract

15. Eriksson A, Giske CG, Ternhag A. The relative importance of Staphylococcus saprophyticus as a urinary tract pathogen: distribution of bacteria among urinary samples analysed during 1 year at a major Swedish laboratory. APMIS. 2013 Jan;121(1):72-8. Abstract

16. Edlin RS, Shapiro DJ, Hersh AL, et al. Antibiotic resistance patterns of outpatient pediatric urinary tract infections. J Urol. 2013 Jul;190(1):222-7.Full text  Abstract

17. Gajdács M, Urbán E. Resistance trends and epidemiology of Citrobacter, Enterobacter, Serratia in urinary tract infections of inpatients and outpatients (RECESUTI): a 10-year survey. Medicina (Kaunas). 2019 Jun 18;55(6):285.Full text  Abstract

18. Floyd RV, Upton M, Hultgren SJ, et al. Escherichia coli-mediated impairment of ureteric contractility is uropathogenic E. coli specific. J Infect Dis. 2012 Nov 15;206(10):1589-96.Full text  Abstract

19. Yang S, Chua ME, Bauer S, et al. Diagnosis and management of bladder bowel dysfunction in children with urinary tract infections: a position statement from the International Children's Continence Society. Pediatr Nephrol. 2018 Dec;33(12):2207-19. Abstract

20. Lüthje P, Brauner A. Virulence factors of uropathogenic E. coli and their interaction with the host. Adv Microb Physiol. 2014;65:337-72. Abstract

21. Plos K, Connell H, Jodal U, et al. Intestinal carriage of P fimbriated Escherichia coli and the susceptibility to urinary tract infection in young children. J Infect Dis. 1995 Mar;171(3):625-31. Abstract

22. Johnson JR. Virulence factors in Escherichia coli urinary tract infection. Clin Microbiol Rev. 1991 Jan;4(1):80-128.Full text  Abstract

23. Wiswell TE, Roscelli JD. Corroborative evidence for the decreased incidence of urinary tract infections in circumcised boy infants. Pediatrics. 1986 Jul;78(1):96-9. Abstract

24. Merrick MV, Notghi A, Chalmers N, et al. Long-term follow up to determine the prognostic value of imaging after urinary tract infections. Part 2: scarring. Arch Dis Child. 1995 May;72(5):393-6.Full text  Abstract

25. Keren R, Shaikh N, Pohl H, et al. Risk factors for recurrent urinary tract infection and renal scarring. Pediatrics. 2015 Jul;136(1):e13-21.Full text  Abstract

26. Shaikh N, Mattoo TK, Keren R, et al. Early antibiotic treatment for pediatric febrile urinary tract infection and renal scarring. JAMA Pediatr. 2016 Sep 1;170(9):848-54. Abstract

27. Arlen AM, Alexander SE, Wald M, et al. Computer model predicting breakthrough febrile urinary tract infection in children with primary vesicoureteral reflux. J Pediatr Urol. 2016 Oct;12(5):288.e1-5. Abstract

28. Santos JD, Lopes RI, Koyle MA. Bladder and bowel dysfunction in children: an update on the diagnosis and treatment of a common, but underdiagnosed pediatric problem. Can Urol Assoc J. 2017 Jan-Feb;11(1-2 suppl 1):S64-72.Full text  Abstract

29. Austin PF, Bauer SB, Bower W, et al. The standardization of terminology of lower urinary tract function in children and adolescents: update report from the standardization committee of the International Children's Continence Society. Neurourol Urodyn. 2016 Apr;35(4):471-81. Abstract

30. Shaikh N, Ewing AL, Bhatnagar S, et al. Risk of renal scarring in children with a first urinary tract infection: a systematic review. Pediatrics. 2010 Dec;126(6):1084-91. Abstract

31. Walawender L, Hains DS, Schwaderer AL. Diagnosis and imaging of neonatal UTIs. Pediatr Neonatol. 2020 Apr;61(2):195-200.Full text  Abstract

32. Hooton TM, Scholes D, Hughes JP, et al. A prospective study of risk factors for symptomatic urinary tract infection in young women. N Engl J Med. 1996 Aug 15;335(7):468-74.Full text  Abstract

33. DeLago C, Deblinger E, Schroeder C, et al. Girls who disclose sexual abuse: urogenital symptoms and signs after genital contact. Pediatrics. 2008 Aug;122(2):e281-6. Abstract

34. Marild S, Hansson S, Jodal U, et al. Protective effect of breastfeeding against urinary tract infection. Acta Paediatr. 2004 Feb;93(2):164-8. Abstract

35. Dick PT, Feldman W. Routine diagnostic imaging for childhood urinary tract infections: a systematic overview. J Pediatr. 1996 Jan;128(1):15-22. Abstract

36. Uwaezuoke SN, Ndu IK, Eze IC. The prevalence and risk of urinary tract infection in malnourished children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Pediatr. 2019 Jul 27;19(1):261.Full text  Abstract

37. Peters CA, Skoog SJ, Arant BS Jr, et al; American Urological Association. Management and screening of primary vesicoureteral reflux in children: AUA guideline. 2017 [internet publication].Full text

38. Robinson JL, Finlay JC, Lang ME, et al. Prophylactic antibiotics for children with recurrent urinary tract infections. Paediatr Child Health. 2015 Jan-Feb;20(1):45-51.Full text  Abstract

39. Shaikh N, Morone NE, Lopez J, et al. Does this child have a urinary tract infection? JAMA. 2007 Dec 26;298(24):2895-904. Abstract

40. Robinson JL, Finlay JC, Lang ME, et al. Urinary tract infections in infants and children: diagnosis and management. Paediatr Child Health. 2014 Jun;19(6):315-25.Full text  Abstract

41. Kaufman J, Temple-Smith M, Sanci L. Urinary tract infections in children: an overview of diagnosis and management. BMJ Paediatr Open. 2019 Sep 24;3(1):e000487.Full text  Abstract

42. Whiting P, Westwood M, Watt I, et al. Rapid tests and urine sampling techniques for the diagnosis of urinary tract infection (UTI) in children under five years: a systematic review. BMC Pediatr. 2005 Apr 5;5(1):4.Full text  Abstract

43. Mori R, Yonemoto N, Fitzgerald A, et al. Diagnostic performance of urine dipstick testing in children with suspected UTI: a systematic review of relationship with age and comparison with microscopy. Acta Paediatr. 2010 Apr;99(4):581-4. Abstract

44. Downs SM. Technical report: urinary tract infections in febrile infants and young children. Pediatrics. 1999 Apr;103(4):e54. Abstract

45. Coulthard MG. Using urine nitrite sticks to test for urinary tract infection in children aged <2 years: a meta-analysis. Pediatr Nephrol. 2019 Jul;34(7):1283-8.Full text  Abstract

46. Powell HR, McCredie DA, Ritchie MA. Urinary nitrite in symptomatic and asymptomatic urinary infection. Arch Dis Child. 1987 Feb;62(2):138-40.Full text  Abstract

47. Nadeem S, Badawy M, Oke OK, et al. Pyuria and urine concentration for identifying urinary tract infection in young children. Pediatrics. 2021 Feb;147(2):e2020014068. Abstract

48. Boonen KJ, Koldewijn EL, Arents NL, et al. Urine flow cytometry as a primary screening method to exclude urinary tract infections. World J Urol. 2013 Jun;31(3):547-51. Abstract

49. Broeren M, Nowacki R, Halbertsma F, et al. Urine flow cytometry is an adequate screening tool for urinary tract infections in children. Eur J Pediatr. 2019 Mar;178(3):363-8. Abstract

50. Becker A, Baum M. Obstructive uropathy. Early Hum Dev. 2006 Jan;82(1):15-22. Abstract

51. Mazzi S, Rohner K, Hayes W, et al. Timing of voiding cystourethrography after febrile urinary tract infection in children: a systematic review. Arch Dis Child. 2020 Mar;105(3):264-9. Abstract

52. Shaikh N, Spingarn RB, Hum SW. Dimercaptosuccinic acid scan or ultrasound in screening for vesicoureteral reflux among children with urinary tract infections. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016 Jul 5;(7):CD010657.Full text  Abstract

53. Shaikh KJ, Osio VA, Leeflang MM, et al. Procalcitonin, C-reactive protein, and erythrocyte sedimentation rate for the diagnosis of acute pyelonephritis in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020 Sep 10;(9):CD009185.Full text  Abstract

54. Pantell RH, Roberts KB, Adams WG, et al. Evaluation and management of well-appearing febrile infants 8 to 60 days old. Pediatrics. 2021 Aug;148(2):e2021052228.Full text  Abstract

55. Achkar JM, Fries BC. Candida infections of the genitourinary tract. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2010 Apr;23(2):253-73.Full text  Abstract

56. Panaretto KS, Craig JC, Knight JF, et al. Risk factors for recurrent urinary tract infection in preschool children. J Paediatr Child Health. 1999 Oct;35(5):454-9. Abstract

57. Shaw KN, Gorelick M, McGowan KL, et al. Prevalence of urinary tract infection in febrile young children in the emergency department. Pediatrics. 1998 Aug;102(2):e16. Abstract

58. Dajani AS, Taubert KA, Gerber MA, et al. Diagnosis and therapy of Kawasaki disease in children. Circulation. 1993 May;87(5):1776-80. Abstract

59. Mattox TF. Interstitial cystitis in adolescents and children: a review. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol. 2004 Feb;17(1):7-11. Abstract

60. Okoli EI, Odaibo AB. Urinary schistosomiasis among school children in Ibadan, an urban community in south-western Nigeria. Trop Med Int Health. 1999 Apr;4(4):308-15.Full text  Abstract

61. Midzi N, Butterworth AE, Mduluza T, et al. Use of circulating cathodic antigen strips for the diagnosis of urinary schistosomiasis. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2009 Jan;103(1):45-51. Abstract

62. Ammenti A, Alberici I, Brugnara M, et al. Updated Italian recommendations for the diagnosis, treatment and follow-up of the first febrile urinary tract infection in young children. Acta Paediatr. 2020 Feb;109(2):236-47.Full text  Abstract

63. Leung AKC, Wong AHC, Leung AAM, et al. Urinary tract infection in children. Recent Pat Inflamm Allergy Drug Discov. 2019;13(1):2-18.Full text  Abstract

64. Bryce A, Hay AD, Lane IF, et al. Global prevalence of antibiotic resistance in paediatric urinary tract infections caused by Escherichia coli and association with routine use of antibiotics in primary care: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ. 2016 Mar 15;352:i939.Full text  Abstract

65. Vazouras K, Basmaci R, Bielicki J, et al. Antibiotics and cure rates in childhood febrile urinary tract infections in clinical trials: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Drugs. 2018 Oct;78(15):1593-604. Abstract

66. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Urinary tract infection (lower): antimicrobial prescribing. Oct 2018 [internet publication].Full text

67. Tamma PD, Aitken SL, Bonomo RA, et al. IDSA guidance on the treatment of antimicrobial-resistant gram-negative infections: version 1.0. Jul 2023 [internet publication].Full text

68. Michael M, Hodson EM, Craig JC, et al. Short versus standard duration oral antibiotic therapy for acute urinary tract infection in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2003;(1):CD003966.Full text  Abstract

69. World Health Organization. Recommendations for management of common childhood conditions. Jan 2012 [internet publication].Full text

70. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Fever in under 5s: assessment and initial management. Nov 2021 [internet publication].Full text

71. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pyelonephritis (acute): antimicrobial prescribing. Oct 2018 [internet publication].Full text

72. Vouloumanou EK, Rafailidis PI, Kazantzi MS, et al. Early switch to oral versus intravenous antimicrobial treatment for hospitalized patients with acute pyelonephritis: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Curr Med Res Opin. 2008 Dec;24(12):3423-34. Abstract

73. Jackson MA, Schutze GE; Committee On Infectious Diseases. The use of systemic and topical fluoroquinolones. Pediatrics. 2016 Nov;138(5):e20162706.Full text  Abstract

74. Committee on Infectious Diseases. The use of systemic fluoroquinolones. Pediatrics. 2006 Sep;118(3):1287-92.Full text  Abstract

75. Rusu A, Munteanu AC, Arbănași EM, et al. Overview of side-effects of antibacterial fluoroquinolones: new drugs versus old drugs, a step forward in the safety profile? Pharmaceutics. 2023 Mar 1;15(3):804.Full text  Abstract

76. Neuhaus TJ, Berger C, Buechner K, et al. Randomised trial of oral versus sequential intravenous/oral cephalosporins in children with pyelonephritis. Eur J Pediatr. 2008 Sep;167(9):1037-47. Abstract

77. Williams G, Craig JC. Long-term antibiotics for preventing recurrent urinary tract infection in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019 Apr 1;(4):CD001534.Full text  Abstract

78. RIVUR Trial Investigators; Hoberman A, Greenfield SP, Mattoo TK, et al. Antimicrobial prophylaxis for children with vesicoureteral reflux. N Engl J Med. 2014 Jun 19;370(25):2367-76.Full text  Abstract

79. Mattoo TK, Chesney RW, Greenfield SP, et al; RIVUR Trial Investigators. Renal scarring in the randomized intervention for children with vesicoureteral reflux (RIVUR) trial. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2016 Jan 7;11(1):54-61.Full text  Abstract

80. Williams G, Hodson EM, Craig JC. Interventions for primary vesicoureteric reflux. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019 Feb 20;(2):CD001532.Full text  Abstract

81. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Urinary tract infection (recurrent): antimicrobial prescribing. Oct 2018 [internet publication].Full text

82. Selekman RE, Shapiro DJ, Boscardin J, et al. Uropathogen resistance and antibiotic prophylaxis: a meta-analysis. Pediatrics. 2018 Jul;142(1):e20180119.Full text  Abstract

83. Brandström P, Esbjörner E, Herthelius M, et al. The Swedish reflux trial in children: III. Urinary tract infection pattern. J Urol. 2010 Jul;184(1):286-91. Abstract

84. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Antimicrobial prescribing guidelines. Jan 2024 [internet publication].Full text

85. Kyriakidou KG, Rafailidis P, Matthaiou DK, et al. Short- versus long-course antibiotic therapy for acute pyelonephritis in adolescents and adults: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Clin Ther. 2008 Oct;30(10):1859-68. Abstract

86. Lorenzo-Gómez MF, Foley S, Nickel JC, et al. Sublingual MV140 for prevention of recurrent urinary tract infections. NEJM Evid. 2022 Apr;1(4):EVIDoa2100018.Full text  Abstract

87. Nickel JC, Saz-Leal P, Doiron RC. Could sublingual vaccination be a viable option for the prevention of recurrent urinary tract infection in Canada? a systematic review of the current literature and plans for the future. Can Urol Assoc J. 2020 Aug;14(8):281-7.Full text  Abstract

88. Kovacic J, Canagasingham A, Zhong W, et al. Evaluation of MV140 in preventing recurrent urinary tract infections: a multicentre double-blind randomized controlled trial protocol. BJU Int. 2024 Apr;133 Suppl 4:37-43. Abstract

89. Najafi F, Sarokhani D, Hasanpour Dehkordi A. The prevalence of kidney scarring due to urinary tract infection in Iranian children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Pediatr Urol. 2019 Aug;15(4):300-8. Abstract

90. Salo J, Ikäheimo R, Tapiainen T, et al. Childhood urinary tract infections as a cause of chronic kidney disease. Pediatrics. 2011 Nov;128(5):840-7. Abstract

91. Kosmeri C, Kalaitzidis R, Siomou E. An update on renal scarring after urinary tract infection in children: what are the risk factors? J Pediatr Urol. 2019 Dec;15(6):598-603.Full text  Abstract

92. Cheng CH, Tsau YK, Chang CJ, et al. Acute lobar nephronia is associated with a high incidence of renal scarring in childhood urinary tract infections. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2010 Jul;29(7):624-8. Abstract

93. Calderon-Margalit R, Golan E, Twig G, et al. History of childhood kidney disease and risk of adult end-stage renal disease. N Engl J Med. 2018 Feb 1;378(5):428-38.Full text  Abstract

94. Salo J, Uhari M, Helminen M, et al. Cranberry juice for the prevention of recurrences of urinary tract infections in children: a randomized placebo-controlled trial. Clin Infect Dis. 2012 Feb 1;54(3):340-6.Full text  Abstract

95. Hosseini M, Yousefifard M, Ataei N, et al. The efficacy of probiotics in prevention of urinary tract infection in children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Pediatr Urol. 2017 Dec;13(6):581-91. Abstract