Anthrax

References

Key articles

Bower WA, Yu Y, Person MK, et al. CDC guidelines for the prevention and treatment of anthrax, 2023. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2023 Nov 17;72(6):1-47.Full text  Abstract

Bower WA, Schiffer J, Atmar RL, et al; ACIP Anthrax Vaccine Work Group. Use of anthrax vaccine in the United States: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices, 2019. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2019 Dec 13;68(4):1-14.Full text  Abstract

World Health Organization. Anthrax in humans and animals. 4th ed. 2008 [internet publication].Full text

Reference articles

1. Bower WA, Yu Y, Person MK, et al. CDC guidelines for the prevention and treatment of anthrax, 2023. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2023 Nov 17;72(6):1-47.Full text  Abstract

2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Anthrax (Bacillus anthracis): 2018 case definition. Apr 2021 [internet publication].Full text

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4. Human cutaneous anthrax - North Carolina, 1987. Arch Dermatol. 1988 Sep;124(9):1324. Abstract

5. Leads from the MMWR: human cutaneous anthrax - North Carolina, 1987. JAMA. 1988 Aug 5;260(5):616. Abstract

6. Centers for Disease Control (CDC). Human cutaneous anthrax - North Carolina, 1987. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1988 Jul 8;37(26):413-4.Full text  Abstract

7. Meselson M, Guillemin J, Hugh-Jones M, et al. The Sverdlovsk anthrax outbreak of 1979. Science. 1994 Nov 18;266(5188):1202-8. Abstract

8. Shafazand S, Doyle R, Ruoss S, et al. Inhalational anthrax: epidemiology, diagnosis, and management. Chest. 1999 Nov;116(5):1369-76. Abstract

9. World Health Organization. Disease outbreak news: anthrax - Zambia. Dec 2023 [internet publication].Full text

10. Nguyen TQ, Clark N, Karpati A, et al; 2006 NYC Anthrax Working Group. Public health and environmental response to the first case of naturally acquired inhalational anthrax in the United States in 30 years: infection of a New York City resident who worked with dried animal hides. J Public Health Manag Pract. 2010 May-Jun;16(3):189-200. Abstract

11. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Gastrointestinal anthrax after an animal-hide drumming event - New Hampshire and Massachusetts, 2009. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2010 Jul 23;59(28):872-7.Full text  Abstract

12. Anaraki S, Addiman S, Nixon G, et al. Investigations and control measures following a case of inhalation anthrax in East London in a drum maker and drummer, October 2008. Euro Surveill. 2008 Dec 18;13(51):19076.Full text  Abstract

13. Mwenye KS, Siziya S, Peterson D. Factors associated with human anthrax outbreak in the Chikupo and Ngandu villages of Murewa district in Mashonaland East Province, Zimbabwe. Cent Afr J Med. 1996 Nov;42(11):312-5. Abstract

14. Sidwa T, Salzer JS, Traxler R, et al. Control and prevention of anthrax, Texas, USA, 2019. Emerg Infect Dis. 2020 Dec;26(12):2815-24.Full text  Abstract

15. Brachman P. Inhalation anthrax. Ann NY Acad Sci. 1980 Dec;353(1):83-93. Abstract

16. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Investigation of bioterrorism-related anthrax - Connecticut, 2001. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2001 Dec 7;50(48):1077-9.Full text  Abstract

17. Jernigan DB, Raghunathan PL, Bell BP, et al; National Anthrax Epidemiologic Investigation Team. Investigation of bioterrorism-related anthrax, United States, 2001: epidemiologic findings. Emerg Infect Dis. 2002 Oct;8(10):1019-28.Full text  Abstract

18. Kanafani ZA, Ghossain A, Sharara AI, et al. Endemic gastrointestinal anthrax in 1960s Lebanon: clinical manifestations and surgical findings. Emerg Infect Dis. 2003 May;9(5):520-5.Full text  Abstract

19. Health Protection Scotland. An outbreak of anthrax among drug users in Scotland, December 2009 to December 2010: a report on behalf of the National Anthrax Outbreak Control Team. Dec 2011 [internet publication].Full text

20. Grunow R, Klee SR, Beyer W, et al. Anthrax among heroin users in Europe possibly caused by same Bacillus anthracis strain since 2000. Euro Surveill. 2013 Mar 28;18(13):20437.Full text  Abstract

21. Knox D, Murray G, Millar M, et al. Subcutaneous anthrax in three intravenous drug users: a new clinical diagnosis. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2011 Mar;93(3):414-7.Full text  Abstract

22. Friedlander AM. Anthrax: clinical features, pathogenesis, and potential biological warfare threat. Curr Clin Top Infect Dis. 2000;20:335-49. Abstract

23. Manchee RJ, Broster MG, Stagg AJ, et al. Formaldehyde solution effectively inactivates spores of Bacillus anthracis on the Scottish island of Gruinard. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1994 Nov;60(11):4167-71.Full text  Abstract

24. Ross JM. The pathogenesis of anthrax following the administration of spores by the respiratory route. J Pathol Bacteriol. 1957 Apr;73(2):485-94.

25. Leppla SH. Anthrax toxin edema factor: a bacterial adenylate cyclase that increases cyclic AMP concentrations of eukaryotic cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1982 May;79(10):3162-6.Full text  Abstract

26. Leppla SH. Bacillus anthracis calmodulin-dependent adenylate cyclase: chemical and enzymatic properties and interactions with cells. Adv Cyclic Nucleotide Protein Phosphorylation Res. 1984;17:189-98. Abstract

27. O'Brien J, Friedlander A, Dreier T, et al. Effects of anthrax toxin components on human neutrophils. Infect Immun. 1985 Jan;47(1):306-10.Full text  Abstract

28. Alexeyev OA, Morozov VG, Suzdaltseva TV, et al. Impaired neutrophil function in the cutaneous form of anthrax. Infection. 1994 Jul-Aug;22(4):281-2. Abstract

29. Hammond SE, Hanna PC. Lethal factor active-site mutations affect catalytic activity in vitro. Infect Immun. 1998 May;66(5):2374-8.Full text  Abstract

30. Hanna PC, Kruskal BA, Ezekowitz RA, et al. Role of macrophage oxidative burst in the action of anthrax lethal toxin. Mol Med. 1994 Nov;1(1):7-18.Full text  Abstract

31. Klimpel KR, Arora N, Leppla SH. Anthrax toxin lethal factor contains a zinc metalloprotease consensus sequence which is required for lethal toxin activity. Mol Microbiol. 1994 Sep;13(6):1093-100. Abstract

32. Dixon TC, Meselson M, Guillemin J, et al. Anthrax. New Engl J Med. 1999 Sep 9;341(11):815-26.Full text  Abstract

33. Dutz W, Kohout E. Anthrax. Pathol Annu. 1971;6:209-48. Abstract

34. Dahlgren CM, Buchanan LM, Decker HM, et al. Bacillus anthracis aerosols in goat hair processing mills. Am J Hyg. 1960 Jul;72:24-31. Abstract

35. Albrink WS, Brooks SM, Biron RE, et al. Human inhalation anthrax: a report of three fatal cases. Am J Pathol. 1960 Apr;36(4):457-71.Full text  Abstract

36. Brachman PS, Kaufman AF, Dalldorf FG. Industrial inhalation anthrax. Bacteriol Rev. 1966 Sep;30(3):646-59.Full text  Abstract

37. Inglesby TV, Henderson DA, Bartlett JG, et al; Working Group on Civilian Biodefense. Anthrax as a biological weapon: medical and public health management. JAMA. 1999 May 12;281(18):1735-45. [Erratum in: JAMA. 2000 Apr 19;283(15):1963.] Abstract

38. Fox MD, Kaufmann AF, Zendel SA, et al. Anthrax in Louisiana, 1971: epizootiologic study. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1973 Sep 1;163(5):446-51. Abstract

39. Heyworth B, Ropp ME, Voos UG, et al. Anthrax in the Gambia: an epidemiological study. Br Med J. 1975 Oct 11;4(5988):79-82.Full text  Abstract

40. Fox MD, Boyce JM, Kaufmann AF, et al. An epizootiologic study of anthrax in Falls County, Texas. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1977 Feb 1;170(3):327-33. Abstract

41. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Type and duration of precautions recommended for selected infections and conditions. Jul 2019 [internet publication].Full text

42. Bower WA, Schiffer J, Atmar RL, et al; ACIP Anthrax Vaccine Work Group. Use of anthrax vaccine in the United States: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices, 2019. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2019 Dec 13;68(4):1-14.Full text  Abstract

43. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. How to prevent anthrax. Nov 2020 [internet publication].Full text

44. World Health Organization. Guidelines for the surveillance and control of anthrax in humans and animals. 3rd ed. Geneva, 1998.Full text

45. LaForce FM. Anthrax. Clin Infect Dis. 1994 Dec;19(6):1009-14. Abstract

46. Alizad A, Ayoub EM, Makki N. Intestinal anthrax in a two-year-old child. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1995 May;14(5):394-5.Full text  Abstract

47. Bradley JS, Peacock G, Krug SE, et al; AAP Committee on Infectious Diseases and Disaster Preparedness Advisory Council. Pediatric anthrax clinical management. Pediatrics. 2014 May;133(5):e1411-36.Full text  Abstract

48. Bravata DM, Holty JE, Wang E, et al. Inhalational, gastrointestinal, and cutaneous anthrax in children: a systematic review of cases: 1900 to 2005. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2007 Sep;161(9):896-905.Full text  Abstract

49. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Recommended specimens for microbiology and pathology for diagnosis of anthrax. Nov 2020 [internet publication].Full text

50. Gold H. Treatment of anthrax. Fed Proc. 1967 Sep;26(5):1563-8. Abstract

51. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Update: investigation of bioterrorism-related anthrax and interim guidelines for clinical evaluation of persons with possible anthrax. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2001 Nov 2;50(43):941-8. [Erratum in: MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2001 Nov 9;50(44):991.]Full text  Abstract

52. Shlyakhov E, Rubinstein E. Evaluation of the anthraxin skin test for diagnosis of acute and past human anthrax. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1996 Mar;15(3):242-5. Abstract

53. Guarner J, Zaki SR. Histopathology and immunohistochemistry in the diagnosis of bioterrorism agents. J Histochem Cytochem. 2006 Jan;54(1):3-11.Full text  Abstract

54. Vessal K, Yeganehdoust J, Dutz W, et al. Radiological changes in inhalation anthrax. A report of radiological and pathological correlation in two cases. Clin Radiol. 1975 Oct;26(4):471-4. Abstract

55. Mina B, Dym JP, Kuepper F, et al. Fatal inhalational anthrax with unknown source of exposure in a 61-year-old woman in New York City. JAMA. 2002 Feb 20;287(7):858-62.Full text  Abstract

56. Bush LM, Abrams BH, Beall A, et al. Index case of fatal inhalational anthrax due to bioterrorism in the United States. N Engl J Med. 2001 Nov 29;345(22):1607-10.Full text  Abstract

57. Mayer TA, Bersoff-Matcha S, Murphy C, et al. Clinical presentation of inhalational anthrax following bioterrorism exposure: report of 2 surviving patients. JAMA. 2001 Nov 28;286(20):2549-53.Full text  Abstract

58. Beatty ME, Ashford DA, Griffin PM, et al. Gastrointestinal anthrax: review of the literature. Arch Intern Med. 2003 Nov 10;163(20):2527-31. Abstract

59. Oncul O, Ozsoy MF, Gul HC, et al. Cutaneous anthrax in Turkey: a review of 32 cases. Scand J Infect Dis. 2002;34(6):413-6. Abstract

60. Sirisanthana T, Navachareon N, Tharavichitkul P, et al. Outbreak of oral-oropharyngeal anthrax: an unusual manifestation of human infection with Bacillus anthracis. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1984 Jan;33(1):144-50. Abstract

61. Haig DM, McInnes C, Deane D, et al. The immune and inflammatory response to orf virus. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infectious Dis. 1997 Jun;20(3):197-204. Abstract

62. Swanson DL, Vetter RS. Bites of brown recluse spiders and suspected necrotic arachnidism. N Engl J Med. 2005 Feb 17;352(7):700-7. Abstract

63. Cinti SK, Saravolatz L, Nafziger D, et al. Differentiating inhalational anthrax from other influenza-like illnesses in the setting of a national or regional anthrax outbreak. Arch Intern Med. 2004 Mar 22;164(6):674-6. Abstract

64. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC Yellow Book 2024 - health information for international travel. Travel-associated infections & diseases - anthrax. May 2023 [internet publication].Full text

65. Tsai CW, Morris S. Approval of raxibacumab for the treatment of inhalation anthrax under the US Food and Drug Administration "animal rule". Front Microbiol. 2015 Dec 1;6:1320.Full text  Abstract

66. Nagy CF, Mondick J, Serbina N, et al. Animal-to-human dose translation of obiltoxaximab for treatment of inhalational anthrax under the US FDA animal rule. Clin Transl Sci. 2017 Jan;10(1):12-9.Full text  Abstract

67. Huang E, Pillai SK, Bower WA, et al. Antitoxin treatment of inhalation anthrax: a systematic review. Health Secur. 2015 Nov-Dec;13(6):365-77.Full text  Abstract

68. Holty JE, Bravata DM, Liu H, et al. Systematic review: a century of inhalational anthrax cases from 1900 to 2005. Ann Intern Med. 2006 Feb 21;144(4):270-80. Abstract

69. Hendricks KA, Wright ME, Shadomy SV, et al; Workgroup on Anthrax Clinical Guidelines. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention expert panel meetings on prevention and treatment of anthrax in adults. Emerg Infect Dis. 2014 Feb;20(2):e130687.Full text  Abstract

70. Binkley CE, Cinti S, Simeone DM, et al. Bacillus anthracis as an agent of bioterrorism: a review emphasizing surgical treatment. Ann Surg. 2002 Jul;236(1):9-16. Abstract

71. Bower WA, Hendricks K, Pillai S, et al; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Clinical framework and medical countermeasure use during an anthrax mass-casualty incident. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2015 Dec 4;64(4):1-22.Full text  Abstract

72. Inglesby TV, O'Toole T, Henderson DA, et al; Working Group on Civilian Biodefense. Anthrax as a biological weapon, 2002: updated recommendations for management. JAMA. 2002 May 1;287(17):2236-52. [Erratum in: JAMA 2002 Oct 16;288(15):1849.]Full text  Abstract

73. World Health Organization. Anthrax in humans and animals. 4th ed. 2008 [internet publication].Full text

74. Reissman DB, Whitney EA, Taylor TH Jr, et al. One-year health assessment of adult survivors of Bacillus anthracis infection. JAMA. 2004 Apr 28;291(16):1994-8.Full text  Abstract

75. Murphy D, Marteau TM, Wessely S. A longitudinal study of UK military personnel offered anthrax vaccination: informed choice, symptom reporting, uptake and pre-vaccination health. Vaccine. 2012 Feb 1;30(6):1094-100. Abstract

76. ClinicalTrials.gov. VELOCITY: an anthrax vaccine clinical study. NCT03877926. Dec 2021 [internet publication].Full text

77. Wolfe DN, Espeland EM, Gao Y, et al. Evaluation of BioThrax® and AV7909 anthrax vaccines in adults 66 years of age or older. Vaccine. 2020 Nov 25;38(50):7970-6.Full text  Abstract

78. Park DB, Ahn BE, Son H, et al. Construction of a bivalent vaccine against anthrax and smallpox using the attenuated vaccinia virus KVAC103. BMC Microbiol. 2021 Mar 8;21(1):76.Full text  Abstract

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