References
Key articles
American Academy of Sleep Medicine. The AASM international classification of sleep disorders - third edition, text revision (ICSD-3-TR). Jun 2023 [internet publication].Full text
Attarian H. Treatment options for parasomnias. Neurol Clin. 2010 Nov;28(4):1089-106. Abstract
Morgenthaler TI, Auerbach S, Casey KR, et al. Position paper for the treatment of nightmare disorder in adults: an American Academy of Sleep Medicine position paper. J Clin Sleep Med. 2018 Jun 15;14(6):1041-55.Full text Abstract
Howell M, Avidan AY, Foldvary-Schaefer N, et al. Management of REM sleep behavior disorder: an American Academy of Sleep Medicine clinical practice guideline. J Clin Sleep Med. 2023 Apr 1;19(4):759-68.Full text Abstract
Reference articles
1. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 5th ed., text revision (DSM-5-TR). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2022.
2. American Academy of Sleep Medicine. The AASM international classification of sleep disorders - third edition, text revision (ICSD-3-TR). Jun 2023 [internet publication].Full text
3. Ohayon M, Guilleminault C, Priest RG. Night terrors, sleepwalking, and confusional arousal in the general population: their frequency and relationship to other sleep and mental disorders. J Clin Psychiatry. 1999 Apr;60(4):268-76;quiz 277. Abstract
4. Kales A, Soldatos C, Caldwell AB, et al. Somnabulism: clinical characteristics and personality patterns. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1980 Dec;37(12):1406-10. Abstract
5. Attarian H. Treatment options for parasomnias. Neurol Clin. 2010 Nov;28(4):1089-106. Abstract
6. Klackenberg G. Somnambulism in childhood - prevalence, course and behavioral correlations. A prospective longitudinal study (6-16 years). Acta Paediatr Scand. 1982 May;71(3):495-9. Abstract
7. Winkelman JW, Herzog D, Fava M. The prevalence of sleep-related eating disorder in psychiatric and non-psychiatric populations. Psychol Med. 1999 Nov;29(6):1461-6. Abstract
8. Cicero CE, Giuliano L, Luna J, et al. Prevalence of idiopathic REM behavior disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sleep. 2021 Jun 11;44(6):zsaa294.Full text Abstract
9. Awadalla A, Al-Fayez G, Harville M, et al. Comparative prevalence of isolated sleep paralysis in Kuwaiti, Sudanese and American college students. Psychol Rep. 2004 Aug;95(1):317-22. Abstract
10. Fukuda K. One explanatory basis for the discrepancy of reported prevalence of sleep paralysis among healthy respondents. Percept Mot Skills. 1993 Dec;77(3 Pt 1):803-7. Abstract
11. Wing YK, Chiu H, Leung T, et al. Sleep paralysis in the elderly. J Sleep Res. 1999 Jun;8(2):151-5. Abstract
12. Cheyne JA. Sleep paralysis episode frequency and number, types, and structure of associated hallucinations. J Sleep Res. 2005 Sep;14(3):319-24. Abstract
13. Zadra A, Donderi DC. Nightmares and bad dreams: their prevalence and relationship to well-being. J Abnorm Psychol. 2000 May;109(2):273-81. Abstract
14. Schredl M, Reinhard I. Gender differences in nightmare frequency: a meta-analysis. Sleep Med Rev. 2011 Apr;15(2):115-21. Abstract
15. Sharpless BA. Exploding head syndrome is common in college students. J Sleep Res. 2015 Aug;24(4):447-9. Abstract
16. Ohayon MM. Prevalence of hallucinations and their pathological associations in the general population. Psychiatry Res. 2000 Dec 27;97(2-3):153-64. Abstract
17. Robson WL. Clinical practice. Evaluation and management of enuresis. N Engl J Med. 2009 Apr 2;360(14):1429-36. Abstract
18. Morgenthaler TI, Auerbach S, Casey KR, et al. Position paper for the treatment of nightmare disorder in adults: an American Academy of Sleep Medicine position paper. J Clin Sleep Med. 2018 Jun 15;14(6):1041-55.Full text Abstract
19. Gieselmann A, Ait Aoudia M, Carr M, et al. Aetiology and treatment of nightmare disorder: State of the art and future perspectives. J Sleep Res. 2019 Aug;28(4):e12820.Full text Abstract
20. Robson WL, Jackson HP, Blackhurst D, et al. Enuresis in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. South Med J. 1997 May;90(5):503-5. Abstract
21. Heidbreder A, Frauscher B, Mitterling T, et al. Not only sleepwalking but NREM parasomnia irrespective of the type is associated with HLA DQB1*05:01. J Clin Sleep Med. 2016 Apr 15;12(4):565-70.Full text Abstract
22. Schenck CH, Bundlie SR, Mahowald MW. Delayed emergence of a parkinsonian disorder in 38% of 29 older men initially diagnosed with idiopathic rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder. Neurology. 1996 Feb;46(2):388-93. [Erratum in: Neurology 1996 Jun;46(6):1787.] Abstract
23. Roguski A, Rayment D, Whone AL, et al. A neurologist's guide to REM sleep behavior disorder. Front Neurol. 2020;11:610.Full text Abstract
24. Barone DA, Henchcliffe C. Rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder and the link to alpha-synucleinopathies. Clin Neurophysiol. 2018 Aug;129(8):1551-64. Abstract
25. Sharpless BA. A clinician's guide to recurrent isolated sleep paralysis. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2016;12:1761-7.Full text Abstract
26. Januszko P, Niemcewicz S, Gajda T, et al. Sleepwalking episodes are preceded by arousal-related activation in the cingulate motor area: EEG current density imaging. Clin Neurophysiol. 2016 Jan;127(1):530-6. Abstract
27. Guilleminault C, Kirisoglu C, da Rosa AC, et al. Sleepwalking, a disorder of NREM sleep instability. Sleep Med. 2006 Mar;7(2):163-70. Abstract
28. Espa F, Ondze B, Deglise P, et al. Sleep architecture, slow wave activity, and sleep spindles in adult patients with sleepwalking and sleep terrors. Clin Neurophysiol. 2000 May;111(5):929-39. Abstract
29. Vinai P, Ferri R, Anelli M, et al. New data on psychological traits and sleep profiles of patients affected by nocturnal eating. Sleep Med. 2015 Jun;16(6):746-53. Abstract
30. Heidbreder A, Stefani A, Brandauer E, et al. Gray matter abnormalities of the dorsal posterior cingulate in sleep walking. Sleep Med. 2017 Aug;36:152-5. Abstract
31. Zhang F, Niu L, Liu X, et al. Rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder and neurodegenerative diseases: an update. Aging Dis. 2020 Apr;11(2):315-26.Full text Abstract
32. Schenck CH, Bundlie SR, Ettinger MG, et al. Chronic behavioral disorders of human REM sleep: a new category of parasomnia. Sleep. 1986 Jun;9(2):293-308. Abstract
33. Pressman MR. Factors that predispose, prime and precipitate NREM parasomnias in adults: clinical and forensic implications. Sleep Med Rev. 2007 Feb;11(1):5-30;discussion 31-3. Abstract
34. Jalal B, Hinton DE. Sleep paralysis among Egyptian college students: association with anxiety symptoms (PTSD, trait anxiety, pathological worry). J Nerv Ment Dis. 2015 Nov;203(11):871-5. Abstract
35. Boeve BF, Silber MH, Ferman TJ, et al. Clinicopathologic correlations in 172 cases of rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder with or without a coexisting neurologic disorder. Sleep Med. 2013 Aug;14(8):754-62.Full text Abstract
36. Schenck CH, Boeve BF, Mahowald MW. Delayed emergence of a parkinsonian disorder or dementia in 81% of older males initially diagnosed with idiopathic REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD): 16 year update on a previously reported series. Sleep Med. 2013 Aug;14(8):744-8. Abstract
37. Howell M, Avidan AY, Foldvary-Schaefer N, et al. Management of REM sleep behavior disorder: an American Academy of Sleep Medicine clinical practice guideline. J Clin Sleep Med. 2023 Apr 1;19(4):759-68.Full text Abstract
38. St Louis EK, Boeve BF. REM sleep behavior disorder: diagnosis, clinical implications, and future directions. Mayo Clin Proc. 2017 Nov;92(11):1723-36.Full text Abstract
39. Ye J. Rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder in adults younger than fifty years old. Sleep Med. 2013 Aug;14(8):768-74.Full text Abstract
40. Schutte S, Doghramji K. REM behavior disorder seen with venlafaxine [Effexor]. Sleep Res. 1996;25:364.
41. Lam SP, Fong SY, Ho CK, et al. Parasomnia among psychiatric outpatients: a clinical, epidemiologic, cross-sectional study. J Clin Psychiatry. 2008 Sep;69(9):1374-82. Abstract
42. Onofrj M, Luciano AL, Thomas A, et al. Mirtazapine induces REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD) in parkinsonism. Neurology. 2003 Jan 14;60(1):113-5. Abstract
43. Pagel JF, Helfter P. Drug induced nightmares - an etiology based review. Hum Psychopharmacol. 2003 Jan;18(1):59-67. Abstract
44. Kierlin L, Littner MR. Parasomnias and antidepressant therapy: a review of the literature. Front Psychiatry. 2011 Dec 12;2:71.Full text Abstract
45. Vetrugno R, Manconi M, Ferini-Strambi L, et al. Nocturnal eating: sleep-related eating disorder or night eating syndrome? A videopolysomnographic study. Sleep. 2006 Jul;29(7):949-54. Abstract
46. Hublin C, Kaprio J, Partinen M, et al. Nightmares: familial aggregation and association with psychiatric disorders in a nationwide twin cohort. Am J Med Genet. 1999 Aug 20;88(4):329-36. Abstract
47. Nash JR, Wilson SJ, Potokar JP, et al. Mirtazipine induces REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD) in parkinsonism. Neurology. 2003 Oct 28;61(8):1161;author reply 1161. Abstract
48. Schenck CH, Mahowald MW. Parasomnias. Managing bizarre sleep-related behavior disorders. Postgrad Med. 2000 Mar;107(3):145-56. Abstract
49. Pearce J. Clinical features of the exploding head syndrome. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1989 Jul;52(7):907-10. Abstract
50. Wong JC, Li J, Pavlova M, Chen S, et al. Risk factors for probable REM sleep behavior disorder: a community-based study. 2016 Apr 5;86(14):1306-12.Full text Abstract
51. Howell MJ, Schenck CH. Rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder and neurodegenerative disease. JAMA Neurol. 2015 Jun;72(6):707-12. Abstract
52. Fois C, Wright MA, Sechi G, et al. The utility of polysomnography for the diagnosis of NREM parasomnias: an observational study over 4 years of clinical practice. J Neurol. 2015 Feb;262(2):385-93.Full text Abstract
53. American Academy of Sleep Medicine. The AASM manual for the scoring of sleep and associated events. Feb 2023 [internet publication].
54. Sachs C, Svanborg E. The exploding head syndrome: polysomnographic recordings and therapeutic suggestions. Sleep. 1991 Jun;14(3):263-6. Abstract
55. Drakatos P, Marples L, Muza R, et al. Video polysomnographic findings in non-rapid eye movement parasomnia. J Sleep Res. 2019 Apr;28(2):e12772.Full text Abstract
56. Derry C. Nocturnal frontal lobe epilepsy vs parasomnias. Curr Treat Options Neurol. 2012 Oct;14(5):451-63. Abstract
57. Perrault R, Carrier J, Desautels A, et al. Electroencephalographic slow waves prior to sleepwalking episodes. Sleep Med. 2014 Dec;15(12):1468-72. Abstract
58. Cesari M, Heidbreder A, St Louis EK, et al. Video-polysomnography procedures for diagnosis of rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder (RBD) and the identification of its prodromal stages: guidelines from the International RBD Study Group. Sleep. 2022 Mar 14;45(3):zsab257.Full text Abstract
59. Bazil CW. Nocturnal seizures. Semin Neurol. 2004 Sep;24(3):293-300. Abstract
60. Krahn LE, Arand DL, Avidan AY, et al. Recommended protocols for the Multiple Sleep Latency Test and Maintenance of Wakefulness Test in adults: guidance from the American Academy of Sleep Medicine. J Clin Sleep Med. 2021 Dec 1;17(12):2489-98.Full text Abstract
61. Agargun M, Kara H, Ozer O, et al. Characteristics of patients with nocturnal dissociative disorders. Sleep Hypnosis. 2001;3:131-4.
62. Schenck C, Milner DM, Hurwitz TD, et al. Dissociative disorders presenting as somnambulism: polysomnographic, video and clinical documentation (8 cases). Dissociation. 1989;4:194-204.
63. Graus F, Santamaría J. Understanding anti-IgLON5 disease. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm. 2017 Sep;4(5):e393.Full text Abstract
64. Erickson J, Vaughn BV. Non-REM parasomnia: the promise of precision medicine. Sleep Med Clin. 2019 Sep;14(3):363-70. Abstract
65. Drakatos P, Marples L, Muza R, et al. NREM parasomnias: a treatment approach based upon a retrospective case series of 512 patients. Sleep Med. 2019 Jan;53:181-8.Full text Abstract
66. Wilson S, Anderson K, Baldwin D, et al. British Association for Psychopharmacology consensus statement on evidence-based treatment of insomnia, parasomnias and circadian rhythm disorders: An update. J Psychopharmacol. 2019 Aug;33(8):923-47. Abstract
67. Fantini ML, Puligheddu M, Cicolin A. Sleep and violence. Curr Treat Options Neurol. 2012 Oct;14(5):438-50. Abstract
68. Winkelman JW. Treatment of nocturnal eating syndrome and sleep-related eating disorder with topiramate. Sleep Med. 2003 May;4(3):243-6. Abstract
69. Winkelman JW. Efficacy and tolerability of open-label topiramate in the treatment of sleep-related eating disorder: a retrospective case series. J Clin Psychiatry. 2006 Nov;67(11):1729-34. Abstract
70. Attarian H, Zhu L. Treatment options for disorders of arousal: a case series. Int J Neurosci. 2013 Sep;123(9):623-5. Abstract
71. Harris M, Grunstein RR. Treatments for somnambulism in adults: assessing the evidence. Sleep Med Rev. 2009 Aug;13(4):295-7. Abstract
72. Provini F, Albani F, Vetrugno R, et al. A pilot double-blind placebo-controlled trial of low-dose pramipexole in sleep-related eating disorder. Eur J Neurol. 2005 Jun;12(6):432-6. Abstract
73. Chiaro G, Caletti MT, Provini F. Treatment of sleep-related eating disorder. Curr Treat Options Neurol. 2015 Aug;17(8):361. Abstract
74. Howell M, Avidan AY, Foldvary-Schaefer N, et al. Management of REM sleep behavior disorder: an American Academy of Sleep Medicine systematic review, meta-analysis, and GRADE assessment. J Clin Sleep Med. 2023 Apr 1;19(4):769-810.Full text Abstract
75. Schenck CH, Mahowald MW. Polysomnographic, neurologic, psychiatric, and clinical outcome report on 70 consecutive cases with REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD): sustained clonazepam efficacy in 89.5% of 57 treated patients. Cleve Clin J Med. 1990;57(suppl):S9-23.
76. Malkani R. REM sleep behavior disorder and other REM parasomnias. Continuum (Minneap Minn). 2023 Aug 1;29(4):1092-116. Abstract
77. McGrane IR, Leung JG, St Louis EK, et al. Melatonin therapy for REM sleep behavior disorder: a critical review of evidence. Sleep Med. 2015 Jan;16(1):19-26.Full text Abstract
78. Byun JI, Shin YY, Seong YA, et al. Comparative efficacy of prolonged-release melatonin versus clonazepam for isolated rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder. Sleep Breath. 2023 Mar;27(1):309-18. Abstract
79. Sasai T, Inoue Y, Matsuura M. Effectiveness of pramipexole, a dopamine agonist, on rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder. Tohoku J Exp Med. 2012 Mar;226(3):177-81. Abstract
80. Sasai T, Matsuura M, Inoue Y. Factors associated with the effect of pramipexole on symptoms of idiopathic REM sleep behavior disorder. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2013 Feb;19(2):153-7. Abstract
81. Schmidt MH, Koshal VB, Schmidt HS. Use of pramipexole in REM sleep behavior disorder: results from a case series. Sleep Med. 2006 Aug;7(5):418-23. Abstract
82. Brunetti V, Losurdo A, Testani E, et al. Rivastigmine for refractory REM behavior disorder in mild cognitive impairment. Curr Alzheimer Res. 2014 Mar;11(3):267-73. Abstract
83. Di Giacopo R, Fasano A, Quaranta D, et al. Rivastigmine as alternative treatment for refractory REM behavior disorder in Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord. 2012 Apr;27(4):559-61. Abstract
84. Hintze JP, Gault D. Escitalopram for recurrent isolated sleep paralysis. J Sleep Res. 2020 Dec;29(6):e13027. Abstract
85. Lancee J, Spoormaker VI, Krakow B, et al. A systematic review of cognitive-behavioral treatment for nightmares: toward a well-established treatment. J Clin Sleep Med. 2008 Oct 15;4(5):475-80.Full text Abstract
86. Reist C, Streja E, Tang CC, et al. Prazosin for treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. CNS Spectr. 2021 Aug;26(4):338-44. Abstract
87. Detweiler MB, Pagadala B, Candelario J, et al. Treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder nightmares at a veterans affairs medical center. J Clin Med. 2016 Dec 16;5(12):117.Full text Abstract
88. Larsson V, Aarsland D, Ballard C, et al. The effect of memantine on sleep behaviour in dementia with Lewy bodies and Parkinson's disease dementia. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2010 Oct;25(10):1030-8. Abstract
89. Plastino M, Gorgone G, Fava A, et al. Effects of safinamide on REM sleep behavior disorder in Parkinson disease: A randomized, longitudinal, cross-over pilot study. J Clin Neurosci. 2021 Sep;91:306-12. Abstract
90. During EH, Hernandez B, Miglis MG, et al. Sodium oxybate in treatment-resistant rapid-eye-movement sleep behavior disorder. Sleep. 2023 Aug 14;46(8):zsad103.Full text Abstract
91. Pirzada AR, Almeneessier AS, BaHammam AS. Exploding head syndrome: a case series of underdiagnosed hypnic parasomnia. Case Rep Neurol. 2020 Sep-Dec;12(3):348-58.Full text Abstract
92. Zapp AA, Fischer EC, Deuschle M. The effect of agomelatine and melatonin on sleep-related eating: a case report. Journal of Medical Case Reports. 2017;11:275. Abstract
93. Kunz D, Stotz S, Bes F. Treatment of isolated REM sleep behavior disorder using melatonin as a chronobiotic. J Pineal Res. 2021 Sep;71(2):e12759.Full text Abstract
Use of this content is subject to our disclaimer