Generalized seizures in adults

References

Key articles

Fisher RS, Cross JH, French JA, et al. Operational classification of seizure types by the International League Against Epilepsy: position paper of the ILAE Commission for Classification and Terminology. Epilepsia. 2017 Apr;58(4):522-30.Full text  Abstract

Scheffer IE, Berkovic S, Capovilla G, et al. ILAE classification of the epilepsies: position paper of the ILAE Commission for Classification and Terminology. Epilepsia. 2017 Apr;58(4):512-21.Full text  Abstract

Bernasconi A, Cendes F, Theodore WH, et al. Recommendations for the use of structural magnetic resonance imaging in the care of patients with epilepsy: a consensus report from the International League Against Epilepsy Neuroimaging Task Force. Epilepsia. 2019 Jun;60(6):1054-68. Abstract

Guery D, Rheims S. Clinical management of drug resistant epilepsy: a review on current strategies. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2021;17:2229-42.Full text  Abstract

Krumholz A, Wiebe S, Gronseth GS, et al. Evidence-based guideline: management of an unprovoked first seizure in adults. Neurology. 2015 Apr 21;84(16):1705-13.Full text  Abstract

Campos MSA, Ayres LR, Morelo MRS, et al. Comparative efficacy of antiepileptic drugs for patients with generalized epileptic seizures: systematic review and network meta-analyses. Int J Clin Pharm. 2018 Jun;40(3):589-98. Abstract

Reference articles

1. Fisher RS, Cross JH, French JA, et al. Operational classification of seizure types by the International League Against Epilepsy: position paper of the ILAE Commission for Classification and Terminology. Epilepsia. 2017 Apr;58(4):522-30.Full text  Abstract

2. Scheffer IE, Berkovic S, Capovilla G, et al. ILAE classification of the epilepsies: position paper of the ILAE Commission for Classification and Terminology. Epilepsia. 2017 Apr;58(4):512-21.Full text  Abstract

3. Wirrell EC, Nabbout R, Scheffer IE, et al. Methodology for classification and definition of epilepsy syndromes with list of syndromes: report of the ILAE Task Force on nosology and definitions. Epilepsia. 2022 Jun;63(6):1333-48.Full text  Abstract

4. Hirsch E, French J, Scheffer IE, et al. ILAE definition of the idiopathic generalized epilepsy syndromes: position statement by the ILAE Task Force on nosology and definitions. Epilepsia. 2022 Jun;63(6):1475-99.Full text  Abstract

5. Riney K, Bogacz A, Somerville E, et al. International League Against Epilepsy classification and definition of epilepsy syndromes with onset at a variable age: position statement by the ILAE Task Force on nosology and definitions. Epilepsia. 2022 Jun;63(6):1443-74.Full text  Abstract

6. GBD 2016 Epilepsy Collaborators. Global, regional, and national burden of epilepsy, 1990-2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016. Lancet Neurol. 2019 Apr;18(4):357-75.Full text  Abstract

7. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Epilepsy data and statistics​. Mar 2023 [internet publication].Full text

8. Fiest KM, Sauro KM, Wiebe S, et al. Prevalence and incidence of epilepsy: a systematic review and meta-analysis of international studies. Neurology. 2017 Jan 17;88(3):296-303. Abstract

9. Sen A, Jette N, Husain M, et al. Epilepsy in older people. Lancet. 2020 Feb 29;395(10225):735-48. Abstract

10. Thurman DJ, Begley CE, Carpio A, et al. The primary prevention of epilepsy: a report of the Prevention Task Force of the International League Against Epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2018 May;59(5):905-14.Full text  Abstract

11. World Health Organization. Epilepsy. 2023 [internet publication].​Full text

12. Myers CT, Mefford HC. Advancing epilepsy genetics in the genomic era. Genome Med. 2015 Aug 25;7(1):91.Full text  Abstract

13. Ellis CA, Petrovski S, Berkovic SF. Epilepsy genetics: clinical impacts and biological insights. Lancet Neurol. 2020 Jan;19(1):93-100. Abstract

14. Prince DA, Connors BW. Mechanisms of interictal epileptogenesis. Adv Neurol. 1986;44:275-99. Abstract

15. Rao VR, Lowenstein DH. Epilepsy. Curr Biol. 2015 Aug 31;25(17):R742-6.Full text  Abstract

16. Lindquist BE, Timbie C, Voskobiynyk Y, et al. Thalamocortical circuits in generalized epilepsy: pathophysiologic mechanisms and therapeutic targets. Neurobiol Dis. 2023 Jun 1;181:106094.Full text  Abstract

17. Vezzani A, Fujinami RS, White HS, et al. Infections, inflammation and epilepsy. Acta Neuropathol. 2016 Feb;131(2):211-34. Abstract

18. Rao VR, Parko KL. Clinical approach to posttraumatic epilepsy. Semin Neurol. 2015 Feb;35(1):57-63.Full text  Abstract

19. Seidel S, Wehner T, Miller D, et al. Brain tumor related epilepsy: pathophysiological approaches and rational management of antiseizure medication. Neurol Res Pract. 2022 Sep 5;4(1):45.Full text  Abstract

20. Mamaril-Davis JC, Aguilar-Salinas P, Avila MJ, et al. Complete seizure-free rates following interventional treatment of intracranial arteriovenous malformations: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurosurg Rev. 2022 Apr;45(2):1313-26. Abstract

21. Robertson J, Hatton C, Emerson E, et al. Prevalence of epilepsy among people with intellectual disabilities: a systematic review. Seizure. 2015 Jul;29:46-62.Full text  Abstract

22. Ssentongo P. Prevalence and incidence of new-onset seizures and epilepsy in patients with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV): systematic review and meta-analysis. Epilepsy Behav. 2019 Apr;93:49-55. Abstract

23. Wyllie E, ed. The treatment of epilepsy: principles and practice. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2006.

24. Crump C, Sundquist K, Winkleby MA, et al. Preterm birth and risk of epilepsy in Swedish adults. Neurology. 2011 Oct 4;77(14):1376-82. Abstract

25. Li W, Peng A, Deng S, et al. Do premature and postterm birth increase the risk of epilepsy? an updated meta-analysis. Epilepsy Behav. 2019 Aug;97:83-91. Abstract

26. Syndi Seinfeld D, Pellock JM. Recent research on febrile seizures: a review. J Neurol Neurophysiol. 2013 Sep 25;4(165):19519.Full text  Abstract

27. Nelson KB, Ellenberg JH. Predictors of epilepsy in children who have experienced febrile seizures. N Engl J Med. 1976 Nov 4;295(19):1029-33. Abstract

28. Al-Aqeel S, Gershuni O, Al-Sabhan J, et al. Strategies for improving adherence to antiepileptic drug treatment in people with epilepsy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020 Oct 22;10(10):CD008312.Full text  Abstract

29. Leibetseder A, Eisermann M, LaFrance WC Jr, et al. How to distinguish seizures from non-epileptic manifestations. Epileptic Disord. 2020 Dec 1;22(6):716-38.Full text  Abstract

30. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Transient loss of consciousness ('blackouts') in over 16s. Sep 2014 [internet publication].Full text

31. Tatum WO, Hirsch LJ, Gelfand MA, et al. Assessment of the Predictive Value of Outpatient Smartphone Videos for Diagnosis of Epileptic Seizures. JAMA Neurol. 2020 May 1;77(5):593-600.Full text  Abstract

32. Lavi R, Yarnitsky D, Rowe JM, et al. Standard vs atraumatic Whitacre needle for diagnostic lumbar puncture: a randomized trial. Neurology. 2006 Oct 24;67(8):1492-4. Abstract

33. Arendt K, Demaerschalk BM, Wingerchuk DM, et al. Atraumatic lumbar puncture needles: after all these years, are we still missing the point? Neurologist. 2009 Jan;15(1):17-20. Abstract

34. Nath S, Koziarz A, Badhiwala JH, et al. Atraumatic versus conventional lumbar puncture needles: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet. 2018 Mar 24;391(10126):1197-204. Abstract

35. Rochwerg B, Almenawer SA, Siemieniuk RAC, et al. Atraumatic (pencil-point) versus conventional needles for lumbar puncture: a clinical practice guideline. BMJ. 2018 May 22;361:k1920.Full text  Abstract

36. Ahmed SV, Jayawarna C, Jude E. Post lumbar puncture headache: diagnosis and management. Postgrad Med J. 2006 Nov;82(973):713-6.Full text  Abstract

37. Arevalo-Rodriguez I, Ciapponi A, Roqué i Figuls M, et al. Posture and fluids for preventing post-dural puncture headache. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016 Mar 7;(3):CD009199.Full text  Abstract

38. Brigo F, Igwe SC, Erro R, et al. Postictal serum creatine kinase for the differential diagnosis of epileptic seizures and psychogenic non-epileptic seizures: a systematic review. J Neurol. 2015 Feb;262(2):251-7. Abstract

39. Sundararajan T, Tesar GE, Jimenez XF. Biomarkers in the diagnosis and study of psychogenic nonepileptic seizures: a systematic review. Seizure. 2016 Feb;35:11-22.Full text  Abstract

40. Koutroumanidis M, Arzimanoglou A, Caraballo R, et al. The role of EEG in the diagnosis and classification of the epilepsy syndromes: a tool for clinical practice by the ILAE Neurophysiology Task Force (Part 1). Epileptic Disord. 2017 Sep 1;19(3):233-98. Abstract

41. Tatum WO, Rubboli G, Kaplan PW, et al. Clinical utility of EEG in diagnosing and monitoring epilepsy in adults. Clin Neurophysiol. 2018 May;129(5):1056-82.Full text  Abstract

42. Tatum WO, Mani J, Jin K, et al. Minimum standards for inpatient long-term video-EEG monitoring: a clinical practice guideline of the international league against epilepsy and international federation of clinical neurophysiology. Clin Neurophysiol. 2022 Feb;134:111-28.Full text  Abstract

43. Kinney MO, Kovac S, Diehl B. Structured testing during seizures: a practical guide for assessing and interpreting ictal and postictal signs during video EEG long term monitoring. Seizure. 2019 Nov;72:13-22.Full text  Abstract

44. Expert Panel on Neurological Imaging, Lee RK, Burns J, et al. ACR Appropriateness Criteria® seizures and epilepsy. J Am Coll Radiol. 2020 May;17(5s):S293-304.Full text  Abstract

45. Bernasconi A, Cendes F, Theodore WH, et al. Recommendations for the use of structural magnetic resonance imaging in the care of patients with epilepsy: a consensus report from the International League Against Epilepsy Neuroimaging Task Force. Epilepsia. 2019 Jun;60(6):1054-68. Abstract

46. Wang I, Bernasconi A, Bernhardt B, et al. MRI essentials in epileptology: a review from the ILAE Imaging Taskforce. Epileptic Disord. 2020 Aug 1;22(4):421-37.Full text  Abstract

47. Szaflarski JP, Gloss D, Binder JR, et al. Practice guideline summary: use of fMRI in the presurgical evaluation of patients with epilepsy: report of the Guideline Development, Dissemination, and Implementation Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology. 2017 Jan 24;88(4):395-402.Full text  Abstract

48. Simundic AM, Bölenius K, Cadamuro J, et al. Joint EFLM-COLABIOCLI recommendation for venous blood sampling. Clin Chem Lab Med. 2018;56(12):2015-38. Abstract

49. Stone J, Burton C, Carson A. Recognising and explaining functional neurological disorder. BMJ. 2020 Oct 21;371:m3745. Abstract

50. Brown RJ, Reuber M. Psychological and psychiatric aspects of psychogenic non-epileptic seizures (PNES): a systematic review. Clin Psychol Rev. 2016 Apr;45:157-82. Abstract

51. Baslet G, Bajestan SN, Aybek S, et al. Evidence-based practice for the clinical assessment of psychogenic nonepileptic seizures: a report from the American Neuropsychiatric Association Committee on research. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2021 Winter;33(1):27-42.Full text  Abstract

52. Neufeld MY, Treves TA, Chistik V, et al. Sequential serum creatine kinase determination differentiates vaso-vagal syncope from generalized tonic-clonic seizures. Acta Neurol Scand. 1997 Mar;95(3):137-9. Abstract

53. Fisher RS, Acevedo C, Arzimanoglou A, et al. ILAE official report: a practical clinical definition of epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2014 Apr;55(4):475-82.Full text  Abstract

54. Harden C, Tomson T, Gloss D, et al. Practice guideline summary: sudden unexpected death in epilepsy incidence rates and risk factors. Report of the Guideline Development, Dissemination, and Implementation Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society. Neurology. 2017 Apr 25;88(17):1674-80.Full text  Abstract

55. Patel AD, Baca C, Franklin G, et al. Quality improvement in neurology: Epilepsy Quality Measurement Set 2017 update. Neurology. 2018 Oct 30;91(18):829-36.Full text  Abstract

56. Guery D, Rheims S. Clinical management of drug resistant epilepsy: a review on current strategies. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2021;17:2229-42.Full text  Abstract

57. Gidal B, Klein P, Hirsch LJ. Seizure clusters, rescue treatments, seizure action plans: unmet needs and emerging formulations. Epilepsy Behav. 2020 Nov;112:107391.Full text  Abstract

58. Mesraoua B, Abou-Khalil B, Hosni Khodair R, et al. Seizure clusters. J Drug Assess. 2021;10(1):86-90.Full text  Abstract

59. Chung S, Szaflarski JP, Choi EJ, et al. A systematic review of seizure clusters: prevalence, risk factors, burden of disease and treatment patterns. Epilepsy Res. 2021 Nov;177:106748. Abstract

60. Jafarpour S, Hirsch LJ, Gaínza-Lein M, et al. Seizure cluster: definition, prevalence, consequences, and management. Seizure. 2019 May;68:9-15.Full text  Abstract

61. Samanta D. Rescue therapies for seizure emergencies: current and future landscape. Neurol Sci. 2021 Oct;42(10):4017-27. Abstract

62. Kanner AM, Bicchi MM. Antiseizure medications for adults with epilepsy: a review. JAMA. 2022 Apr 5;327(13):1269-81. Abstract

63. Krumholz A, Wiebe S, Gronseth GS, et al. Evidence-based guideline: management of an unprovoked first seizure in adults. Neurology. 2015 Apr 21;84(16):1705-13.Full text  Abstract

64. Bao EL, Chao LY, Ni P, et al. Antiepileptic drug treatment after an unprovoked first seizure: a decision analysis. Neurology. 2018 Oct 9;91(15):e1429-39. Abstract

65. Neligan A, Adan G, Nevitt SJ, et al. Prognosis of adults and children following a first unprovoked seizure. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2023 Jan 23;1(1):CD013847. Abstract

66. Leone MA, Giussani G, Nevitt SJ, et al. Immediate antiepileptic drug treatment, versus placebo, deferred, or no treatment for first unprovoked seizure. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021 May 4;5(5):CD007144.Full text  Abstract

67. Shorvon SD, Bermejo PE, Gibbs AA, et al. Antiepileptic drug treatment of generalized tonic-clonic seizures: an evaluation of regulatory data and five criteria for drug selection. Epilepsy Behav. 2018 May;82:91-103. Abstract

68. Asadi-Pooya AA, Beniczky S, Rubboli G, et al. A pragmatic algorithm to select appropriate antiseizure medications in patients with epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2020 Aug;61(8):1668-77. Abstract

69. Kwan P, Brodie MJ. Early identification of refractory epilepsy. N Engl J Med. 2000 Feb 3;342(5):314-9.Full text  Abstract

70. Shih JJ, Ochoa JG. A systematic review of antiepileptic drug initiation and withdrawal. Neurologist. 2009 May;15(3):122-31. Abstract

71. Brodie MJ, Kwan P. Staged approach to epilepsy management. Neurology. 2002 Apr 23;58(8 suppl 5):S2-8. Abstract

72. Chen Z, Brodie MJ, Liew D, et al. Treatment outcomes in patients with newly diagnosed epilepsy treated with established and new antiepileptic drugs: a 30-year longitudinal cohort study. JAMA Neurol. 2018 Mar 1;75(3):279-86.Full text  Abstract

73. Palleria C, Cozza G, Khengar R, et al. Safety profile of the newest antiepileptic drugs: a curated literature review. Curr Pharm Des. 2017;23(37):5606-24. Abstract

74. Perucca E, Brodie MJ, Kwan P, et al. 30 years of second-generation antiseizure medications: impact and future perspectives. Lancet Neurol. 2020 Jun;19(6):544-56. Abstract

75. Stephen LJ, Harden C, Tomson T, et al. Management of epilepsy in women. Lancet Neurol. 2019 May;18(5):481-91. Abstract

76. Johansen-Bibby A. Prescribing for pregnancy: epilepsy. Drug Ther Bull. 2020 Jul;58(7):103-6. Abstract

77. Tomson T, Battino D, Bromley R, et al. Management of epilepsy in pregnancy: a report from the International League Against Epilepsy Task force on women and pregnancy. Epileptic Disord. 2019 Dec 1;21(6):497-517. Abstract

78. Mazzone PP, Hogg KM, Weir CJ, et al. Comparison of perinatal outcomes for women with and without epilepsy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Neurol. 2023 May 1;80(5):484-94. Abstract

79. Bromley R, Adab N, Bluett-Duncan M, et al. Monotherapy treatment of epilepsy in pregnancy: congenital malformation outcomes in the child. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2023 Aug 29;8(8):CD010224.Full text  Abstract

80. Harden CL, Hopp J, Ting TY, et al. Practice parameter update: management issues for women with epilepsy - focus on pregnancy (an evidence-based review): obstetrical complications and change in seizure frequency. Neurology. 2009 Jul 14;73(2):126-32.Full text  Abstract

81. Harden CL, Meador KJ, Pennell PB, et al. Practice parameter update: management issues for women with epilepsy - focus on pregnancy (an evidence-based review): teratogenesis and perinatal outcomes. Neurology. 2009 Jul 14;73(2):133-41.Full text  Abstract

82. Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency. Antiepileptic drugs in pregnancy: updated advice following comprehensive safety review. Jan 2021 [internet publication].Full text

83. Gynecologic management of adolescents and young women with seizure disorders: ACOG committee opinion, number 806. Obstet Gynecol. 2020 May;135(5):e213-20.Full text  Abstract

84. European Medicines Agency. New measures to avoid valproate exposure in pregnancy endorsed. Mar 2018 [internet publication].Full text

85. Dreier JW, Bjørk MH, Alvestad S, et al. Prenatal exposure to antiseizure medication and incidence of childhood- and adolescence-onset psychiatric disorders. JAMA Neurol. 2023 Jun 1;80(6):568-77. Abstract

86. Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency. Pregabalin (Lyrica): findings of safety study on risks during pregnancy. 19 April 2022 [internet publication].Full text

87. Bjørk MH, Zoega H, Leinonen MK, et al. Association of prenatal exposure to antiseizure medication with risk of autism and intellectual disability. JAMA Neurol. 2022 Jul 1;79(7):672-81.Full text  Abstract

88. Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency. Topiramate (Topamax): start of safety review triggered by a study reporting an increased risk of neurodevelopmental disabilities in children with prenatal exposure. Jul 2022 [internet publication]​Full text

89. European Medicines Agency. Topiramate. Sep 2023 [internet publication].​Full text

90. Athar F, Ehsan M, Farooq M, et al. Adverse fetal and neonatal outcomes following in-utero exposure to oxcarbazepine: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2022 Aug;88(8):3600-9.Full text  Abstract

91. Harden CL, Pennell PB, Koppel BS, et al. Practice parameter update: management issues for women with epilepsy - focus on pregnancy (an evidence-based review): vitamin K, folic acid, blood levels, and breastfeeding. Neurology. 2009 Jul 14;73(2):142-9.Full text  Abstract

92. Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. Epilepsy in pregnancy (green-top guideline no. 68). Jun 2016 [internet publication].Full text

93. Vegrim HM, Dreier JW, Alvestad S, et al. Cancer risk in children of mothers with epilepsy and high-dose folic acid use during pregnancy. JAMA Neurol. 2022 Nov 1;79(11):1130-8.Full text  Abstract

94. Pennell PB, Karanam A, Meador KJ, et al. Antiseizure medication concentrations during pregnancy: results From the Maternal Outcomes and Neurodevelopmental Effects of Antiepileptic Drugs (MONEAD) study. JAMA Neurol. 2022 Apr 1;79(4):370-9.Full text  Abstract

95. Campos MSA, Ayres LR, Morelo MRS, et al. Comparative efficacy of antiepileptic drugs for patients with generalized epileptic seizures: systematic review and network meta-analyses. Int J Clin Pharm. 2018 Jun;40(3):589-98. Abstract

96. Nevitt SJ, Sudell M, Cividini S, et al. Antiepileptic drug monotherapy for epilepsy: a network meta‐analysis of individual participant data. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2022 Apr 1;4(4):CD011412.Full text  Abstract

97. Glauser T, Ben-Menachem E, Bourgeois B, et al; ILAE Subcommission on AED Guidelines. Updated ILAE evidence review of antiepileptic drug efficacy and effectiveness as initial monotherapy for epileptic seizures and syndromes. Epilepsia. 2013 Mar;54(3):551-63.Full text  Abstract

98. Nevitt SJ, Marson AG, Weston J, et al. Sodium valproate versus phenytoin monotherapy for epilepsy: an individual participant data review. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018 Aug 9;(8):CD001769.Full text  Abstract

99. Marson A, Burnside G, Appleton R, et al. The SANAD II study of the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of valproate versus levetiracetam for newly diagnosed generalised and unclassifiable epilepsy: an open-label, non-inferiority, multicentre, phase 4, randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2021 Apr 10;397(10282):1375-86.Full text  Abstract

100. Kanner AM, Ashman E, Gloss D, et al. Practice guideline update summary: efficacy and tolerability of the new antiepileptic drugs I: treatment of new-onset epilepsy. Epilepsy Curr. 2018 Jul-Aug;18(4):260-8.Full text  Abstract

101. Nevitt SJ, Sudell M, Tudur Smith C, et al. Topiramate versus carbamazepine monotherapy for epilepsy: an individual participant data review. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019 Jun 24;(6):CD012065.Full text  Abstract

102. Nevitt SJ, Tudur Smith C, Weston J, et al. Lamotrigine versus carbamazepine monotherapy for epilepsy: an individual participant data review. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018 Jun 28;(6):CD001031.Full text  Abstract

103. Nevitt SJ, Tudur Smith C, Marson AG. Oxcarbazepine versus phenytoin monotherapy for epilepsy: an individual participant data review. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018 Oct 23;(10):CD003615.Full text  Abstract

104. Hoy SM. Lacosamide: a review in focal-onset seizures in patients with epilepsy. CNS Drugs. 2018 May;32(5):473-84. Abstract

105. Feyissa AM. Brivaracetam in the treatment of epilepsy: a review of clinical trial data. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2019 Sep 9;15:2587-600.Full text  Abstract

106. LaRoche SM, Helmers SL. The new antiepileptic drugs: scientific review. JAMA. 2004 Feb 4;291(5):605-14.Full text  Abstract

107. Zhou Q, Zheng J, Yu L, et al. Pregabalin monotherapy for epilepsy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012 Oct 17;(10):CD009429. Abstract

108. Nevitt SJ, Marson AG, Tudur Smith C. Carbamazepine versus phenytoin monotherapy for epilepsy: an individual participant data review. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019 Jul 18;7(7):CD001911.Full text  Abstract

109. Marson AG, Al-Kharusi AM, Alwaidh M, et al. The SANAD study of effectiveness of carbamazepine, gabapentin, lamotrigine, oxcarbazepine, or topiramate for treatment of partial epilepsy: an unblinded randomized controlled trial. Lancet. 2007 Mar 24;369(9566):1000-15.Full text  Abstract

110. Brodie MJ, Perucca E, Ryvlin P, et al. Comparison of levetiracetam and controlled-release carbamazepine in newly diagnosed epilepsy. Neurology. 2007 Feb 6;68(6):402-8. Abstract

111. Baulac M, Brodie MJ, Patten A, et al. Efficacy and tolerability of zonisamide versus controlled-release carbamazepine for newly diagnosed partial epilepsy: a phase 3, randomised, double-blind, non-inferiority trial. Lancet Neurol. 2012 Jul;11(7):579-88. Abstract

112. Baulac M, Patten A, Giorgi L. Long-term safety and efficacy of zonisamide versus carbamazepine monotherapy for treatment of partial seizures in adults with newly diagnosed epilepsy: results of a phase III, randomized, double-blind study. Epilepsia. 2014 Oct;55(10):1534-43.Full text  Abstract

113. Willems LM, Zöllner JP, Paule E, et al. Eslicarbazepine acetate in epilepsies with focal and secondary generalised seizures: systematic review of current evidence. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol. 2018 Mar;11(3):309-24. Abstract

114. Bourdet SV, Gidal BE, Alldredge BK. Pharmacologic management of epilepsy in the elderly. J Am Pharma Assoc. 2001 May-Jun;41(3):421-36. Abstract

115. Rankin A, Cadogan CA, Patterson SM, et al. Interventions to improve the appropriate use of polypharmacy for older people. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018 Sep 3;(9):CD008165.Full text  Abstract

116. Bergey GK. Initial treatment of epilepsy: special issues in treating the elderly. Neurology. 2004 Nov 23;63(10 suppl 4):S40-8. Abstract

117. Jankovic SM, Dostic M. Choice of antiepileptic drugs for the elderly: possible drug interactions and adverse effects. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol. 2012 Jan;8(1):81-91. Abstract

118. Smith CT, Marson AG, Chadwick DW, et al. Multiple treatment comparisons in epilepsy monotherapy trials. Trials. 2007 Nov 5;8:34.Full text  Abstract

119. Marson AG, Appleton R, Baker GA, et al. A randomised controlled trial examining the longer-term outcomes of standard versus new antiepileptic drugs. The SANAD trial. Health Technol Assess. 2007 Oct;11(37):iii-iv;ix-x;1-134. Abstract

120. Bergey GK. Evidence-based treatment of idiopathic generalized epilepsies with new antiepileptic drugs. Epilepsia. 2005;46(suppl 9):161-8.Full text  Abstract

121. Kanner AM, Ashman E, Gloss D, et al. Practice guideline update summary: efficacy and tolerability of the new antiepileptic drugs II: treatment-resistant epilepsy: report of the Guideline Development, Dissemination, and Implementation Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society. Neurology. 2018 Jul 10;91(2):82-90.Full text  Abstract

122. Potschka H, Trinka E. Perampanel: does it have broad-spectrum potential? Epilepsia. 2019 Mar;60(suppl 1):22-36.Full text  Abstract

123. Tyrlikova I, Brazdil M, Rektor I, et al. Perampanel as monotherapy and adjunctive therapy for focal onset seizures, focal to bilateral tonic-clonic seizures and as adjunctive therapy of generalized onset tonic-clonic seizures. Expert Rev Neurother. 2019 Jan;19(1):5-16. Abstract

124. Colleran N, O Connor T, O Brien JJ. Anti epileptic drug trials for patients with drug resistant idiopathic generalised epilepsy: a meta-analysis. Seizure. 2017 Oct;51:145-56.Full text  Abstract

125. Bresnahan R, Panebianco M, Marson AG. Brivaracetam add-on therapy for drug-resistant epilepsy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2022 Mar 14;3(3):CD011501.Full text  Abstract

126. Bresnahan R, Martin-McGill KJ, Williamson J, et al. Clobazam add-on therapy for drug-resistant epilepsy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019 Oct 22;(10):CD004154.Full text  Abstract

127. Trinka E, Tsong W, Toupin S, et al. A systematic review and indirect treatment comparison of perampanel versus brivaracetam as adjunctive therapy in patients with focal-onset seizures with or without secondary generalization. Epilepsy Res. 2020 Oct;166:106403. Abstract

128. Hou L, Yang J, Zhang X, et al. Efficacy and tolerability of perampanel in patients with seizures in real-world clinical practice: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Pharmacol. 2023;14:1139514.Full text  Abstract

129. Cutillo G, Tolba H, Hirsch LJ. Anti-seizure medications and efficacy against focal to bilateral tonic-clonic seizures: a systematic review with relevance for SUDEP prevention. Epilepsy Behav. 2021 Apr;117:107815. Abstract

130. Vossler DG, Knake S, O'Brien TJ, et al. Efficacy and safety of adjunctive lacosamide in the treatment of primary generalised tonic-clonic seizures: a double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled trial. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2020 Oct;91(10):1067-75.Full text  Abstract

131. Bresnahan R, Hounsome J, Jette N, et al. Topiramate add-on therapy for drug-resistant focal epilepsy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019 Oct 23;(10):CD001417.Full text  Abstract

132. Mbizvo GK, Dixon P, Hutton JL, et al. Levetiracetam add-on for drug-resistant focal epilepsy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020 Jun 30;(6):CD001901.Full text  Abstract

133. Brigo F, Lattanzi S, Igwe SC, et al. Zonisamide add-on therapy for focal epilepsy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020 Jul 24;(7):CD001416.Full text  Abstract

134. Panebianco M, Al-Bachari S, Hutton JL, et al. Gabapentin add-on treatment for drug-resistant focal epilepsy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021 Jan 12;(1):CD001415.Full text  Abstract

135. Panebianco M, Bresnahan R, Marson AG. Pregabalin add-on for drug-resistant focal epilepsy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2022 Mar 29;3(3):CD005612.Full text  Abstract

136. Kwan P, Arzimanoglou A, Berg AT, et al. Definition of drug resistant epilepsy: consensus proposal by the ad hoc Task Force of the ILAE Commission on therapeutic strategies. Epilepsia. 2010 Jun;51(6):1069-77.Full text  Abstract

137. Culler GW 4th, Jobst BC. Surgical treatments for epilepsy. Continuum (Minneap Minn). 2022 Apr 1;28(2):536-58. Abstract

138. Perucca E, Perucca P, White HS, et al. Drug resistance in epilepsy. Lancet Neurol. 2023 Aug;22(8):723-34. Abstract

139. West S, Nevitt SJ, Cotton J, et al. Surgery for epilepsy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019 Jun 25;6(6):CD010541.Full text  Abstract

140. Sheng J, Liu S, Qin H, et al. Drug-resistant epilepsy and surgery. Curr Neuropharmacol. 2018;16(1):17-28.Full text  Abstract

141. Englot DJ, Wang DD, Rolston JD, et al. Rates and predictors of long-term seizure freedom after frontal lobe epilepsy surgery: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Neurosurg. 2012 May;116(5):1042-8. Abstract

142. Wu C, Schwalb JM, Rosenow JM, et al. The American Society for Stereotactic and Functional Neurosurgery Position statement on laser interstitial thermal therapy for the treatment of drug-resistant epilepsy. Neurosurgery. 2022 Feb 1;90(2):155-60.Full text  Abstract

143. Boon P, De Cock E, Mertens A, et al. Neurostimulation for drug-resistant epilepsy: a systematic review of clinical evidence for efficacy, safety, contraindications and predictors for response. Curr Opin Neurol. 2018 Apr;31(2):198-210. Abstract

144. Ryvlin P, Rheims S, Hirsch LJ, et al. Neuromodulation in epilepsy: state-of-the-art approved therapies. Lancet Neurol. 2021 Dec;20(12):1038-47. Abstract

145. Englot DJ, Rolston JD, Wright CW, et al. Rates and predictors of seizure freedom with vagus nerve stimulation for intractable epilepsy neurosurgery. 2016 Sep;79(3):345-53.Full text  Abstract

146. Redgrave J, Day D, Leung H, et al. Safety and tolerability of transcutaneous vagus nerve stimulation in humans; a systematic review. Brain Stimul. 2018 Nov-Dec;11(6):1225-38. Abstract

147. Toffa DH, Touma L, El Meskine T, et al. Learnings from 30 years of reported efficacy and safety of vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) for epilepsy treatment: a critical review. Seizure. 2020 Dec;83:104-23.Full text  Abstract

148. Wang HJ, Tan G, Zhu LN, et al. Predictors of seizure reduction outcome after vagus nerve stimulation in drug-resistant epilepsy. Seizure. 2019 Mar;66:53-60.Full text  Abstract

149. Li MCH, Cook MJ. Deep brain stimulation for drug-resistant epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2018 Feb;59(2):273-90. Abstract

150. Chang B, Xu J. Deep brain stimulation for refractory temporal lobe epilepsy: a systematic review and meta-analysis with an emphasis on alleviation of seizure frequency outcome. Childs Nerv Syst. 2018 Feb;34(2):321-7. Abstract

151. Vetkas A, Fomenko A, Germann J, et al. Deep brain stimulation targets in epilepsy: systematic review and meta-analysis of anterior and centromedian thalamic nuclei and hippocampus. Epilepsia. 2022 Mar;63(3):513-24. Abstract

152. Jobst BC, Kapur R, Barkley GL, et al. Brain-responsive neurostimulation in patients with medically intractable seizures arising from eloquent and other neocortical areas. Epilepsia. 2017 Jun;58(6):1005-14.Full text  Abstract

153. Geller EB, Skarpaas TL, Gross RE, et al. Brain-responsive neurostimulation in patients with medically intractable mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2017 Jun;58(6):994-1004.Full text  Abstract

154. Heck CN, King-Stephens D, Massey AD, et al. Two-year seizure reduction in adults with medically intractable partial onset epilepsy treated with responsive neurostimulation: final results of the RNS System Pivotal trial. Epilepsia. 2014 Mar;55(3):432-41.Full text  Abstract

155. ClinicalTrials.gov. RNS system NAUTILUS study (NAUTILUS). ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT05147571. Aug 2023 [internet publication].Full text

156. Strozzi I, Nolan SJ, Sperling MR, et al. Early versus late antiepileptic drug withdrawal for people with epilepsy in remission. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015 Feb 11;(2):CD001902.Full text  Abstract

157. Gloss D, Pargeon K, Pack A, et al. Antiseizure medication withdrawal in seizure-free patients: practice advisory update summary: report of the AAN Guideline Subcommittee. Neurology. 2021 Dec 7;97(23):1072-81.Full text  Abstract

158. Ayuga Loro F, Gisbert Tijeras E, Brigo F. Rapid versus slow withdrawal of antiepileptic drugs. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2022 Jan 10;1(1):CD005003.Full text  Abstract

159. Bresnahan R, Panebianco M, Marson AG. Lamotrigine add-on therapy for drug-resistant generalised tonic-clonic seizures. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020 Jul 1;(7):CD007783.Full text  Abstract

160. Nagarajan E, Lynch TM, Frawley B, et al. Tolerability of clobazam as add-on therapy in patients aged 50 years and older with drug-resistant epilepsy. Neurol Sci. 2023 Aug;44(8):2883-8. Abstract

161. US Food and Drug Administration. Orphan drug designations and approvals: topiramate injection. Jul 2013 [internet publication].Full text

162. American Epilepsy Society. AES Position statement on cannabis as a treatment for patients with epileptic seizures updated. Sep 2022 [internet publication].Full text

163. Lattanzi S, Trinka E, Striano P, et al. Highly purified cannabidiol for epilepsy treatment: a systematic review of epileptic conditions beyond dravet syndrome and lennox-gastaut syndrome. CNS Drugs. 2021 Mar;35(3):265-81.Full text  Abstract

164. Appendino JP, Boelman C, Brna PM, et al. Position statement on the use of medical cannabis for the treatment of epilepsy in Canada. Can J Neurol Sci. 2019 Nov;46(6):645-52.Full text  Abstract

165. Beniczky S, Wiebe S, Jeppesen J, et al. Automated seizure detection using wearable devices: a clinical practice guideline of the International League Against Epilepsy and the International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology. Clin Neurophysiol. 2021 May;132(5):1173-84.Full text  Abstract

166. Shum J, Friedman D. Commercially available seizure detection devices: a systematic review. J Neurol Sci. 2021 Sep 15;428:117611. Abstract

167. Xue-Ping W, Hai-Jiao W, Li-Na Z, et al. Risk factors for drug-resistant epilepsy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Medicine (Baltimore). 2019 Jul;98(30):e16402.Full text  Abstract

168. Sultana B, Panzini MA, Veilleux Carpentier A, et al. Incidence and prevalence of drug-resistant epilepsy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurology. 2021 Apr 27;96(17):805-17. Abstract

169. Trinka E, Cock H, Hesdorffer D, et al. A definition and classification of status epilepticus: report of the ILAE Task Force on Classification of Status Epilepticus. Epilepsia. 2015 Oct;56(10):1515-23.Full text  Abstract

170. Betjemann JP, Lowenstein DH. Status epilepticus in adults. Lancet Neurol. 2015 Jun;14(6):615-24. Abstract

171. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Epilepsies: diagnosis and management. May 2021 [internet publication].Full text

172. Glauser T, Shinnar S, Gloss D, et al. Evidence-based guideline: treatment of convulsive status epilepticus in children and adults: report of the Guideline Committee of the American Epilepsy Society. Epilepsy Curr. 2016 Jan-Feb;16(1):48-61.Full text  Abstract

173. Keezer MR, Sisodiya SM, Sander JW. Comorbidities of epilepsy: current concepts and future perspectives. Lancet Neurol. 2016 Jan;15(1):106-15. Abstract

174. Hesdorffer DC, Ishihara L, Mynepalli L, et al. Epilepsy, suicidality, and psychiatric disorders: a bidirectional association. Ann Neurol. 2012 Aug;72(2):184-91. Abstract

175. Maguire MJ, Marson AG, Nevitt SJ. Antidepressants for people with epilepsy and depression. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021 Apr 16;4(4):CD010682.Full text  Abstract

176. Josephson CB, Gonzalez-Izquierdo A, Denaxas S, et al. Independent associations of incident epilepsy and enzyme-inducing and non-enzyme-inducing antiseizure medications with the development of osteoporosis. JAMA Neurol. 2023 Aug 1;80(8):843-50. Abstract

177. Sveinsson O, Andersson T, Carlsson S, et al. The incidence of SUDEP: a nationwide population-based cohort study. Neurology. 2017 Jul 11;89(2):170-7. Abstract

178. Mesraoua B, Tomson T, Brodie M, et al. Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP): definition, epidemiology, and significance of education. Epilepsy Behav. 2022 Jul;132:108742. Abstract

179. Pensel MC, Nass RD, Taubøll E, et al. Prevention of sudden unexpected death in epilepsy: current status and future perspectives. Expert Rev Neurother. 2020 May;20(5):497-508. Abstract

180. Ryvlin P, Cucherat M, Rheims S. Risk of sudden unexpected death in epilepsy in patients given adjunctive antiepileptic treatment for refractory seizures: a meta-analysis of placebo-controlled randomised trials. Lancet Neurol. 2011 Nov;10(11):961-8. Abstract

181. Maguire MJ, Jackson CF, Marson AG, et al. Treatments for the prevention of sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020 Apr 2;(4):CD011792.Full text  Abstract

182. Patsalos PN, Spencer EP, Berry DJ. Therapeutic drug monitoring of antiepileptic drugs in epilepsy: a 2018 update. Ther Drug Monit. 2018 Oct;40(5):526-48. Abstract

183. ​ePROVIDE. Quality of life in epilepsy inventory-10 (QOLIE-10). Feb 2023 [internet publication].Full text

184. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Epilepsy​. Feb 2023 [internet publication]​.Full text

185. American Epilepsy Society. Substitution of different formulations of antiseizure medication for the treatment of epilepsy. Aug 2023 [internet publication].Full text

Use of this content is subject to our disclaimer