Status epilepticus

Brophy GM, Bell R, Claassen J, et al; Neurocritical Care Society Status Epilepticus Guideline Writing Committee. Guidelines for the evaluation and management of status epilepticus. Neurocrit Care. 2012 Aug;17(1):3-23. Abstract

Glauser T, Shinnar S, Gloss D. Evidence-based guideline: treatment of convulsive status epilepticus in children and adults: report of the Guideline Committee of the American Epilepsy Society. Epilepsy Curr. 2016 Jan-Feb;16(1):48-61.Full text  Abstract

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (UK). Epilepsies in children, young people and adults. Apr 2022 [internet publication].Full text

1. Lowenstein DH, Bleck T, Macdonald RL. It's time to revise the definition of status epilepticus. Epilepsia. 1999 Jan;40(1):120-2. Abstract

2. Brophy GM, Bell R, Claassen J, et al; Neurocritical Care Society Status Epilepticus Guideline Writing Committee. Guidelines for the evaluation and management of status epilepticus. Neurocrit Care. 2012 Aug;17(1):3-23. Abstract

3. Fisher RS, Cross JH, French JA, et al. Operational classification of seizure types by the International League Against Epilepsy: position paper of the ILAE Commission for Classification and Terminology. Epilepsia. 2017 Apr;58(4):522-30.Full text  Abstract

4. Trinka E, Cock H, Hesdorffer D, et al. A definition and classification of status epilepticus - report of the ILAE Task Force on Classification of Status Epilepticus. Epilepsia. 2015 Oct;56(10):1515-23.Full text  Abstract

5. Dham BS, Hunter K, Rincon F. The epidemiology of status epilepticus in the United States. Neurocrit Care. 2014 Jun;20(3):476-83. Abstract

6. DeLorenzo RJ, Hauser WA, Towne AR, et al. A prospective, population-based epidemiologic study of status epilepticus in Richmond, Virginia. Neurology. 1996 Apr;46(4):1029-35. Abstract

7. Shorvon S, Sen A. What is status epilepticus and what do we know about its epidemiology? Seizure. 2020 Feb;75:131-6.Full text  Abstract

8. Hauser WA. Status epilepticus: epidemiologic considerations. Neurology. 1990 May;40(5 suppl 2):S9-13. Abstract

9. Gloss D, Pargeon K, Pack A, et al. Antiseizure medication withdrawal in seizure-free patients: practice advisory update summary: report of the AAN Guideline Subcommittee. Neurology. 2021 Dec 7;97(23):1072-81.Full text  Abstract

10. Pellock JM. Overview: definitions and classifications of seizure emergencies. J Child Neurol. 2007 May;22(5 suppl):S9-13. Abstract

11. Craig DP, Mitchell TN, Thomas RH. A tiered strategy for investigating status epilepticus. Seizure. 2020 Feb;75:165-73.Full text  Abstract

12. Bien CG, Granata T, Antozzi C, et al. Pathogenesis, diagnosis and treatment of Rasmussen encephalitis: a European consensus statement. Brain. 2005 Mar;128(pt 3):454-71. Abstract

13. Lowenstein DH, Alldredge BK. Status epilepticus. N Engl J Med. 1998 Apr 2;338(14):970-6. Abstract

14. Betjemann JP, Lowenstein DH. Status epilepticus in adults. Lancet Neurol. 2015 Jun;14(6):615-24. Abstract

15. Chen JW, Naylor DE, Wasterlain CG. Advances in the pathophysiology of status epilepticus. Acta Neurol Scand Suppl. 2007;186:7-15. Abstract

16. Naylor DE, Liu H, Wasterlain CG. Trafficking of GABA(A) receptors, loss of inhibition, and a mechanism for pharmacoresistance in status epilepticus. J Neurosci. 2005 Aug 24;25(34):7724-33.Full text  Abstract

17. Goodkin HP, Sun C, Yeh JL, et al. GABA(A) receptor internalization during seizures. Epilepsia. 2007;48(suppl 5):109-13.Full text  Abstract

18. Naylor DE, Liu H, Niquet J, et al. Rapid surface accumulation of NMDA receptors increases glutamatergic excitation during status epilepticus. Neurobiol Dis. 2013 Jun;54:225-38.Full text  Abstract

19. Jones DM, Esmaeil N, Maren S, et al. Characterization of pharmacoresistance to benzodiazepines in the rat Li-pilocarpine model of status epilepticus. Epilepsy Res. 2002 Aug;50(3):301-12. Abstract

20. Kapur J, Macdonald RL. Rapid seizure-induced reduction of benzodiazepine and Zn2+ sensitivity of hippocampal dentate granule cell GABAA receptors. J Neurosci. 1997 Oct 1;17(19):7532-40.Full text  Abstract

21. Meldrum BS, Vigouroux RA, Rage P, et al. Hippocampal lesions produced by prolonged seizures in paralyzed artificially ventilated baboons. Experientia. 1973 May 15;29(5):561-3. Abstract

22. Alldredge BK, Lowenstein DH. Status epilepticus related to alcohol abuse. Epilepsia. 1993 Nov-Dec;34(6):1033-7. Abstract

23. Trinka E, Höfler J, Zerbs A. Causes of status epilepticus. Epilepsia. 2012 Sep;53(suppl 4):127-38.Full text  Abstract

24. Shinnar S. Who is at risk for prolonged seizures? J Child Neurol. 2007 May;22(5 suppl):S14-20. Abstract

25. Hesdorffer DC, Logroscino G, Cascino G, et al. Incidence of status epilepticus in Rochester, Minnesota, 1965-1984. Neurology. 1998 Mar;50(3):735-41. Abstract

26. Glauser T, Shinnar S, Gloss D. Evidence-based guideline: treatment of convulsive status epilepticus in children and adults: report of the Guideline Committee of the American Epilepsy Society. Epilepsy Curr. 2016 Jan-Feb;16(1):48-61.Full text  Abstract

27. Herman ST, Abend NS, Bleck TP, et al. Consensus statement on continuous EEG in critically ill adults and children, part I: indications. J Clin Neurophysiol. 2015 Apr;32(2):87-95.Full text  Abstract

28. Teramoto K, Horiguchi S, Wakitani F, et al. Effects of styrene on wheel-running and ambulatory activities in mice. J Toxicol Sci. 1988 May;13(2):133-9.Full text  Abstract

29. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (UK). Epilepsies in children, young people and adults. Apr 2022 [internet publication].Full text

30. Krumholz A. Epidemiology and evidence for morbidity of nonconvulsive status epilepticus. J Clin Neurophysiol. 1999 Jul;16(4):314-22. Abstract

31. Sutton F, Barca D, Komoltsev I, et al. Testing blood and CSF in people with epilepsy: a practical guide. Epileptic Disord. 2020 Aug 1;22(4):381-98.Full text  Abstract

32. Crawshaw AA, Cock HR. Medical management of status epilepticus: emergency room to intensive care unit. Seizure. 2020 Feb;75:145-52.Full text  Abstract

33. Riviello JJ Jr, Ashwal S, Hirtz D, et al. Practice parameter: diagnostic assessment of the child with status epilepticus (an evidence-based review). Neurology. 2006 Nov 14;67(9):1542-50 (reaffirmed 2022).Full text  Abstract

34. Neligan A, Shorvon SD. Prognostic factors, morbidity and mortality in tonic-clonic status epilepticus: a review. Epilepsy Res. 2011 Jan;93(1):1-10. Abstract

35. Cascino GD. Generalized convulsive status epilepticus. Mayo Clin Proc. 1996 Aug;71(8):787-92. Abstract

36. Treiman DM. Treatment of convulsive status epilepticus. Int Rev Neurobiol. 2007 Sep 17;339(12):792-8. Abstract

37. Kalviainen R, Eriksson K, Parviainen I. Refractory generalised convulsive status epilepticus: a guide to treatment. CNS Drugs. 2005;19(9):759-68. Abstract

38. Treiman DM, Meyers PD, Walton NY, et al; Veterans Affairs Status Epilepticus Cooperative Study Group. A comparison of four treatments for generalized convulsive status epilepticus. N Engl J Med. 1998 Sep 17;339(12):792-8.Full text  Abstract

39. Wheless JW, Clarke DF, Arzimanoglou A, et al. Treatment of pediatric epilepsy: European expert opinion, 2007. Epileptic Disord. 2007 Dec;9(4):353-412. Abstract

40. Gaínza-Lein M, Sánchez Fernández I, Jackson M, et al. Association of time to treatment with short-term outcomes for pediatric patients with refractory convulsive status epilepticus. JAMA Neurol. 2018 Apr 1;75(4):410-8.Full text  Abstract

41. Osorio I, Reed RC. Treatment of refractory generalized tonic-clonic status epilepticus with pentobarbital anesthesia after high-dose phenytoin. Epilepsia. 1989 Jul-Aug;30(4):464-71. Abstract

42. Kapur J, Elm J, Chamberlain JM, et al. Randomized trial of three anticonvulsant medications for status epilepticus. N Engl J Med. 2019 Nov 28;381(22):2103-13.Full text  Abstract

43. Chamberlain JM, Kapur J, Shinnar S, et al. Efficacy of levetiracetam, fosphenytoin, and valproate for established status epilepticus by age group (ESETT): a double-blind, responsive-adaptive, randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2020 Apr 11;395(10231):1217-24.Full text  Abstract

44. Lyttle MD, Rainford NEA, Gamble C, et al. Levetiracetam versus phenytoin for second-line treatment of paediatric convulsive status epilepticus (EcLiPSE): a multicentre, open-label, randomised trial. Lancet. 2019 May 25;393(10186):2125-34.Full text  Abstract

45. Dalziel SR, Borland ML, Furyk J, et al. Levetiracetam versus phenytoin for second-line treatment of convulsive status epilepticus in children (ConSEPT): an open-label, multicentre, randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2019 May 25;393(10186):2135-45. Abstract

46. Trinka E, Höfler J, Leitinger M, et al. Pharmacotherapy for status epilepticus. Drugs. 2015 Sep;75(13):1499-521.Full text  Abstract

47. Vasile B, Rasulo F, Candiani A, et al. The pathophysiology of propofol infusion syndrome: a simple name for a complex syndrome. Intensive Care Med. 2003 Sep;29(9):1417-25. Abstract

48. Parviainen I, Uusaro A, Kalviainen R, et al. High-dose thiopental in the treatment of refractory status epilepticus in intensive care unit. Neurology. 2002 Oct 22;59(8):1249-51. Abstract

49. Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (UK). Drug safety update. Antiepileptic drugs in pregnancy: updated advice following comprehensive safety review. 7 January 2021 [internet publication].Full text

50. Hernández-Díaz S, Smith CR, Shen A, et al. Comparative safety of antiepileptic drugs during pregnancy. Neurology. 2012 May 22;78(21):1692-9. Abstract

51. US Food and Drug Administration. Highlights of prescribing information. Feb 2021 [internet publication].Full text

52. American Epilepsy Society. Position statement on the use of valproate by women of childbearing potential. 8 June 2021 [internet publication].Full text

53. Towne AR, Garnett LK, Waterhouse EJ, et al. The use of topiramate in refractory status epilepticus. Neurology. 2003 Jan 28;60(2):332-4. Abstract

54. Inokuchi R, Ohashi-Fukuda N, Nakamura K, et al. Comparison of intranasal and intravenous diazepam on status epilepticus in stroke patients: a retrospective cohort study. Medicine (Baltimore). 2015 Feb;94(7):e555.Full text  Abstract

55. Pieribone VA, Tsai J, Soufflet C, et al. Clinical evaluation of ganaxolone in pediatric and adolescent patients with refractory epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2007 Oct;48(10):1870-4.Full text  Abstract

56. Alkhachroum A, Der-Nigoghossian CA, Mathews E, et al. Ketamine to treat super-refractory status epilepticus. Neurology. 2020 Oct 20;95(16):e2286-94.Full text  Abstract

57. Rosati A, De Masi S, Guerrini R. Ketamine for refractory status epilepticus: a systematic review. CNS Drugs. 2018 Nov;32(11):997-1009. Abstract

58. Thakur KT, Probasco JC, Hocker SE, et al. Ketogenic diet for adults in super-refractory status epilepticus. Neurology. 2014 Feb 25;82(8):665-70.Full text  Abstract

59. Cervenka MC, Hocker S, Koenig M, et al. Phase I/II multicenter ketogenic diet study for adult superrefractory status epilepticus. Neurology. 2017 Mar 7;88(10):938-43.Full text  Abstract

60. Appavu B, Vanatta L, Condie J, et al. Ketogenic diet treatment for pediatric super-refractory status epilepticus. Seizure. 2016 Oct;41:62-5.Full text  Abstract

61. Meierkord H, Boon P, Engelsen B, et al. EFNS guideline on the management of status epilepticus in adults. Eur J Neurol. 2010 Mar;17(3):348-55.Full text  Abstract

62. Neville BG, Chin RF, Scott RC. Childhood convulsive status epilepticus: epidemiology, management and outcome. Acta Neurol Scand. 2007 Apr;115(4 suppl):S21-4. Abstract

63. Koubeissi M, Alshekhlee A. In-hospital mortality of generalized convulsive status epilepticus: a large US sample. Neurology. 2007 Aug 28;69(9):886-93. Abstract

64. Neligan A, Noyce AJ, Gosavi TD, et al. Change in mortality of generalized convulsive status epilepticus in high-income countries over time: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Neurol. 2019 May 28;76(8):897-905.Full text  Abstract

65. Neligan A, Shorvon SD. Frequency and prognosis of convulsive status epilepticus of different causes: a systematic review. Arch Neurol. 2010 Aug;67(8):931-40. Abstract

66. Migdady I, Rosenthal ES, Cock HR. Management of status epilepticus: a narrative review. Anaesthesia. 2022 Jan;77(suppl 1):78-91.Full text  Abstract

67. Yaffe K, Lowenstein DH. Prognostic factors of pentobarbital therapy for refractory generalized status epilepticus. Neurology. 1993 May;43(5):895-900. Abstract

68. Jambaque I, Hertz-Pannier L, Mikaeloff Y, et al. Severe memory impairment in a child with bihippocampal injury after status epilepticus. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2006 Mar;48(3):223-6.Full text  Abstract