Status epilepticus

Brophy GM, Bell R, Claassen J, et al; Neurocritical Care Society Status Epilepticus Guideline Writing Committee. Guidelines for the evaluation and management of status epilepticus. Neurocrit Care. 2012 Aug;17(1):3-23. Abstract

Glauser T, Shinnar S, Gloss D. Evidence-based guideline: treatment of convulsive status epilepticus in children and adults: report of the Guideline Committee of the American Epilepsy Society. Epilepsy Curr. 2016 Jan-Feb;16(1):48-61.Full text  Abstract

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (UK). Epilepsies in children, young people and adults. Apr 2022 [internet publication].Full text

1. Lowenstein DH, Bleck T, Macdonald RL. It's time to revise the definition of status epilepticus. Epilepsia. 1999 Jan;40(1):120-2. Abstract

2. Brophy GM, Bell R, Claassen J, et al; Neurocritical Care Society Status Epilepticus Guideline Writing Committee. Guidelines for the evaluation and management of status epilepticus. Neurocrit Care. 2012 Aug;17(1):3-23. Abstract

3. Fisher RS, Cross JH, French JA, et al. Operational classification of seizure types by the International League Against Epilepsy: position paper of the ILAE Commission for Classification and Terminology. Epilepsia. 2017 Apr;58(4):522-30.Full text  Abstract

4. Ochoa JG, Dougherty M, Papanastassiou A, et al. Treatment of super-refractory status epilepticus: a review. Epilepsy Curr. 2021 Mar 10;21(6):1535759721999670.Full text  Abstract

5. Wickstrom R, Taraschenko O, Dilena R, et al. International consensus recommendations for management of new onset refractory status epilepticus (NORSE) including febrile infection-related epilepsy syndrome (FIRES): summary and clinical tools. Epilepsia. 2022 Aug 11;63(11):2827-39.Full text  Abstract

6. Tharmaraja T, Ho JSY, Neligan A, et al. The etiology and mortality of new-onset refractory status epilepticus (NORSE) in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Epilepsia. 2023 May;64(5):1113-24. Abstract

7. Trinka E, Cock H, Hesdorffer D, et al. A definition and classification of status epilepticus - report of the ILAE Task Force on Classification of Status Epilepticus. Epilepsia. 2015 Oct;56(10):1515-23.Full text  Abstract

8. Dham BS, Hunter K, Rincon F. The epidemiology of status epilepticus in the United States. Neurocrit Care. 2014 Jun;20(3):476-83. Abstract

9. DeLorenzo RJ, Hauser WA, Towne AR, et al. A prospective, population-based epidemiologic study of status epilepticus in Richmond, Virginia. Neurology. 1996 Apr;46(4):1029-35. Abstract

10. Shorvon S, Sen A. What is status epilepticus and what do we know about its epidemiology? Seizure. 2020 Feb;75:131-6.Full text  Abstract

11. Hauser WA. Status epilepticus: epidemiologic considerations. Neurology. 1990 May;40(5 suppl 2):S9-13. Abstract

12. Gloss D, Pargeon K, Pack A, et al. Antiseizure medication withdrawal in seizure-free patients: practice advisory update summary: report of the AAN Guideline Subcommittee. Neurology. 2021 Dec 7;97(23):1072-81.Full text  Abstract

13. Pellock JM. Overview: definitions and classifications of seizure emergencies. J Child Neurol. 2007 May;22(5 suppl):S9-13. Abstract

14. Craig DP, Mitchell TN, Thomas RH. A tiered strategy for investigating status epilepticus. Seizure. 2020 Feb;75:165-73.Full text  Abstract

15. Coeytaux A, Jallon P, Galobardes B, et al. Incidence of status epilepticus in French-speaking Switzerland: (EPISTAR). Neurology. 2000 Sep 12;55(5):693-7. Abstract

16. Vooturi S, Jayalakshmi S, Sahu S, et al. Prognosis and predictors of outcome of refractory generalized convulsive status epilepticus in adults treated in neurointensive care unit. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2014 Nov;126:7-10. Abstract

17. Bien CG, Granata T, Antozzi C, et al. Pathogenesis, diagnosis and treatment of Rasmussen encephalitis: a European consensus statement. Brain. 2005 Mar;128(pt 3):454-71. Abstract

18. Howell KB, Katanyuwong K, Mackay MT, et al. Long-term follow-up of febrile infection-related epilepsy syndrome. Epilepsia. 2012 Jan;53(1):101-10.Full text  Abstract

19. Lowenstein DH, Alldredge BK. Status epilepticus. N Engl J Med. 1998 Apr 2;338(14):970-6. Abstract

20. Betjemann JP, Lowenstein DH. Status epilepticus in adults. Lancet Neurol. 2015 Jun;14(6):615-24. Abstract

21. Chen JW, Naylor DE, Wasterlain CG. Advances in the pathophysiology of status epilepticus. Acta Neurol Scand Suppl. 2007;186:7-15. Abstract

22. Naylor DE, Liu H, Wasterlain CG. Trafficking of GABA(A) receptors, loss of inhibition, and a mechanism for pharmacoresistance in status epilepticus. J Neurosci. 2005 Aug 24;25(34):7724-33.Full text  Abstract

23. Goodkin HP, Sun C, Yeh JL, et al. GABA(A) receptor internalization during seizures. Epilepsia. 2007;48(suppl 5):109-13.Full text  Abstract

24. Naylor DE, Liu H, Niquet J, et al. Rapid surface accumulation of NMDA receptors increases glutamatergic excitation during status epilepticus. Neurobiol Dis. 2013 Jun;54:225-38.Full text  Abstract

25. Jones DM, Esmaeil N, Maren S, et al. Characterization of pharmacoresistance to benzodiazepines in the rat Li-pilocarpine model of status epilepticus. Epilepsy Res. 2002 Aug;50(3):301-12. Abstract

26. Kapur J, Macdonald RL. Rapid seizure-induced reduction of benzodiazepine and Zn2+ sensitivity of hippocampal dentate granule cell GABAA receptors. J Neurosci. 1997 Oct 1;17(19):7532-40.Full text  Abstract

27. Meldrum BS, Vigouroux RA, Rage P, et al. Hippocampal lesions produced by prolonged seizures in paralyzed artificially ventilated baboons. Experientia. 1973 May 15;29(5):561-3. Abstract

28. Alldredge BK, Lowenstein DH. Status epilepticus related to alcohol abuse. Epilepsia. 1993 Nov-Dec;34(6):1033-7. Abstract

29. Trinka E, Höfler J, Zerbs A. Causes of status epilepticus. Epilepsia. 2012 Sep;53(suppl 4):127-38.Full text  Abstract

30. Shinnar S. Who is at risk for prolonged seizures? J Child Neurol. 2007 May;22(5 suppl):S14-20. Abstract

31. De Stefano P, Kaplan PW, Quintard H, et al. Nonconvulsive status epilepticus following cardiac arrest: overlooked, untreated and misjudged. J Neurol. 2023 Jan;270(1):130-8.Full text  Abstract

32. Crawshaw AA, Cock HR. Medical management of status epilepticus: emergency room to intensive care unit. Seizure. 2020 Feb;75:145-52.Full text  Abstract

33. Hesdorffer DC, Logroscino G, Cascino G, et al. Incidence of status epilepticus in Rochester, Minnesota, 1965-1984. Neurology. 1998 Mar;50(3):735-41. Abstract

34. Glauser T, Shinnar S, Gloss D. Evidence-based guideline: treatment of convulsive status epilepticus in children and adults: report of the Guideline Committee of the American Epilepsy Society. Epilepsy Curr. 2016 Jan-Feb;16(1):48-61.Full text  Abstract

35. Herman ST, Abend NS, Bleck TP, et al. Consensus statement on continuous EEG in critically ill adults and children, part I: indications. J Clin Neurophysiol. 2015 Apr;32(2):87-95.Full text  Abstract

36. Teramoto K, Horiguchi S, Wakitani F, et al. Effects of styrene on wheel-running and ambulatory activities in mice. J Toxicol Sci. 1988 May;13(2):133-9.Full text  Abstract

37. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (UK). Epilepsies in children, young people and adults. Apr 2022 [internet publication].Full text

38. Krumholz A. Epidemiology and evidence for morbidity of nonconvulsive status epilepticus. J Clin Neurophysiol. 1999 Jul;16(4):314-22. Abstract

39. Sutton F, Barca D, Komoltsev I, et al. Testing blood and CSF in people with epilepsy: a practical guide. Epileptic Disord. 2020 Aug 1;22(4):381-98.Full text  Abstract

40. Riviello JJ Jr, Ashwal S, Hirtz D, et al. Practice parameter: diagnostic assessment of the child with status epilepticus (an evidence-based review). Neurology. 2006 Nov 14;67(9):1542-50 (reaffirmed 2022).Full text  Abstract

41. Neligan A, Shorvon SD. Prognostic factors, morbidity and mortality in tonic-clonic status epilepticus: a review. Epilepsy Res. 2011 Jan;93(1):1-10. Abstract

42. Cascino GD. Generalized convulsive status epilepticus. Mayo Clin Proc. 1996 Aug;71(8):787-92. Abstract

43. Treiman DM. Treatment of convulsive status epilepticus. Int Rev Neurobiol. 2007 Sep 17;339(12):792-8. Abstract

44. Kalviainen R, Eriksson K, Parviainen I. Refractory generalised convulsive status epilepticus: a guide to treatment. CNS Drugs. 2005;19(9):759-68. Abstract

45. Treiman DM, Meyers PD, Walton NY, et al; Veterans Affairs Status Epilepticus Cooperative Study Group. A comparison of four treatments for generalized convulsive status epilepticus. N Engl J Med. 1998 Sep 17;339(12):792-8.Full text  Abstract

46. Wheless JW, Clarke DF, Arzimanoglou A, et al. Treatment of pediatric epilepsy: European expert opinion, 2007. Epileptic Disord. 2007 Dec;9(4):353-412. Abstract

47. Gaínza-Lein M, Sánchez Fernández I, Jackson M, et al. Association of time to treatment with short-term outcomes for pediatric patients with refractory convulsive status epilepticus. JAMA Neurol. 2018 Apr 1;75(4):410-8.Full text  Abstract

48. Osorio I, Reed RC. Treatment of refractory generalized tonic-clonic status epilepticus with pentobarbital anesthesia after high-dose phenytoin. Epilepsia. 1989 Jul-Aug;30(4):464-71. Abstract

49. Kapur J, Elm J, Chamberlain JM, et al. Randomized trial of three anticonvulsant medications for status epilepticus. N Engl J Med. 2019 Nov 28;381(22):2103-13.Full text  Abstract

50. Chamberlain JM, Kapur J, Shinnar S, et al. Efficacy of levetiracetam, fosphenytoin, and valproate for established status epilepticus by age group (ESETT): a double-blind, responsive-adaptive, randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2020 Apr 11;395(10231):1217-24.Full text  Abstract

51. Lyttle MD, Rainford NEA, Gamble C, et al. Levetiracetam versus phenytoin for second-line treatment of paediatric convulsive status epilepticus (EcLiPSE): a multicentre, open-label, randomised trial. Lancet. 2019 May 25;393(10186):2125-34.Full text  Abstract

52. Dalziel SR, Borland ML, Furyk J, et al. Levetiracetam versus phenytoin for second-line treatment of convulsive status epilepticus in children (ConSEPT): an open-label, multicentre, randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2019 May 25;393(10186):2135-45. Abstract

53. Trinka E, Höfler J, Leitinger M, et al. Pharmacotherapy for status epilepticus. Drugs. 2015 Sep;75(13):1499-521.Full text  Abstract

54. Vasile B, Rasulo F, Candiani A, et al. The pathophysiology of propofol infusion syndrome: a simple name for a complex syndrome. Intensive Care Med. 2003 Sep;29(9):1417-25. Abstract

55. Parviainen I, Uusaro A, Kalviainen R, et al. High-dose thiopental in the treatment of refractory status epilepticus in intensive care unit. Neurology. 2002 Oct 22;59(8):1249-51. Abstract

56. Shorvon S, Ferlisi M. The treatment of super-refractory status epilepticus: a critical review of available therapies and a clinical treatment protocol. Brain. 2011 Oct;134(pt 10):2802-18.Full text  Abstract

57. Cornwall CD, Krøigård T, Kristensen JSS, et al. Outcomes and treatment approaches for super-refractory status epilepticus: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Neurol. 2023 Jul 31;80(9):959-68.Full text  Abstract

58. Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (UK). Drug safety update. Antiepileptic drugs in pregnancy: updated advice following comprehensive safety review. 7 January 2021 [internet publication].Full text

59. Pack AM, Oskoui M, Williams Roberson S, et al. Teratogenesis, perinatal, and neurodevelopmental outcomes after in utero exposure to antiseizure medication: practice guideline from the AAN, AES, and SMFM. Neurology. 2024 Jun;102(11):e209279.Full text  Abstract

60. Battino D, Tomson T, Bonizzoni E, et al. Risk of major congenital malformations and exposure to antiseizure medication monotherapy. JAMA Neurol. 2024 May 1;81(5):481-9.Full text  Abstract

61. Bromley R, Adab N, Bluett-Duncan M, et al. Monotherapy treatment of epilepsy in pregnancy: congenital malformation outcomes in the child. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2023 Aug 29;8(8):CD010224.Full text  Abstract

62. Towne AR, Garnett LK, Waterhouse EJ, et al. The use of topiramate in refractory status epilepticus. Neurology. 2003 Jan 28;60(2):332-4. Abstract

63. Welling LC, Rabelo NN, Yoshikawa MH, et al. Efficacy of topiramate as an add-on therapy in patients with refractory status epilepticus: a short systematic review. [in por]. Rev Bras Ter Intensiva. 2021 Oct 25;33(3):440-4.Full text  Abstract

64. Inokuchi R, Ohashi-Fukuda N, Nakamura K, et al. Comparison of intranasal and intravenous diazepam on status epilepticus in stroke patients: a retrospective cohort study. Medicine (Baltimore). 2015 Feb;94(7):e555.Full text  Abstract

65. Pieribone VA, Tsai J, Soufflet C, et al. Clinical evaluation of ganaxolone in pediatric and adolescent patients with refractory epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2007 Oct;48(10):1870-4.Full text  Abstract

66. Vaitkevicius H, Ramsay RE, Swisher CB, et al. Intravenous ganaxolone for the treatment of refractory status epilepticus: results from an open-label, dose-finding, phase 2 trial. Epilepsia. 2022 Sep;63(9):2381-91.Full text  Abstract

67. Rosenthal ES, Claassen J, Wainwright MS, et al. Brexanolone as adjunctive therapy in super-refractory status epilepticus. Ann Neurol. 2017 Sep;82(3):342-52.Full text  Abstract

68. Alkhachroum A, Der-Nigoghossian CA, Mathews E, et al. Ketamine to treat super-refractory status epilepticus. Neurology. 2020 Oct 20;95(16):e2286-94.Full text  Abstract

69. Rosati A, De Masi S, Guerrini R. Ketamine for refractory status epilepticus: a systematic review. CNS Drugs. 2018 Nov;32(11):997-1009. Abstract

70. Thakur KT, Probasco JC, Hocker SE, et al. Ketogenic diet for adults in super-refractory status epilepticus. Neurology. 2014 Feb 25;82(8):665-70.Full text  Abstract

71. Cervenka MC, Hocker S, Koenig M, et al. Phase I/II multicenter ketogenic diet study for adult superrefractory status epilepticus. Neurology. 2017 Mar 7;88(10):938-43.Full text  Abstract

72. Appavu B, Vanatta L, Condie J, et al. Ketogenic diet treatment for pediatric super-refractory status epilepticus. Seizure. 2016 Oct;41:62-5.Full text  Abstract

73. Lee K, Klein P, Dongre P, et al. Intravenous brivaracetam in the management of acute seizures in the hospital setting: a scoping review. J Intensive Care Med. 2022 Sep;37(9):1133-45.Full text  Abstract

74. Klein P, Schiemann J, Sperling MR, et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter, parallel-group study to evaluate the efficacy and safety of adjunctive brivaracetam in adult patients with uncontrolled partial-onset seizures. Epilepsia. 2015 Dec;56(12):1890-8.Full text  Abstract

75. Ryvlin P, Werhahn KJ, Blaszczyk B, et al. Adjunctive brivaracetam in adults with uncontrolled focal epilepsy: results from a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Epilepsia. 2014 Jan;55(1):47-56.Full text  Abstract

76. Biton V, Berkovic SF, Abou-Khalil B, et al. Brivaracetam as adjunctive treatment for uncontrolled partial epilepsy in adults: a phase III randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Epilepsia. 2014 Jan;55(1):57-66.Full text  Abstract

77. Szaflarski JP, Sadek A, Greve B, et al. Randomized open-label trial of intravenous brivaracetam versus lorazepam for acute treatment of increased seizure activity. Epilepsy Behav. 2020 Aug;109:107127.Full text  Abstract

78. Orlandi N, Bartolini E, Audenino D, et al. Intravenous brivaracetam in status epilepticus: a multicentric retrospective study in Italy. Seizure. 2021 Mar;86:70-6.Full text  Abstract

79. Lattanzi S, Chiesa V, Di Gennaro G, et al. Brivaracetam use in clinical practice: a delphi consensus on its role as first add-on therapy in focal epilepsy and beyond. Neurol Sci. 2024 Sep;45(9):4519-27.Full text  Abstract

80. McKenzie KC, Hahn CD, Friedman JN. Emergency management of the paediatric patient with convulsive status epilepticus. [in fre]. Paediatr Child Health. 2021 Feb 1;26(1):50-66.Full text  Abstract

81. Neville BG, Chin RF, Scott RC. Childhood convulsive status epilepticus: epidemiology, management and outcome. Acta Neurol Scand. 2007 Apr;115(4 suppl):S21-4. Abstract

82. Koubeissi M, Alshekhlee A. In-hospital mortality of generalized convulsive status epilepticus: a large US sample. Neurology. 2007 Aug 28;69(9):886-93. Abstract

83. Neligan A, Noyce AJ, Gosavi TD, et al. Change in mortality of generalized convulsive status epilepticus in high-income countries over time: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Neurol. 2019 May 28;76(8):897-905.Full text  Abstract

84. Neligan A, Shorvon SD. Frequency and prognosis of convulsive status epilepticus of different causes: a systematic review. Arch Neurol. 2010 Aug;67(8):931-40. Abstract

85. Migdady I, Rosenthal ES, Cock HR. Management of status epilepticus: a narrative review. Anaesthesia. 2022 Jan;77(suppl 1):78-91.Full text  Abstract

86. Yaffe K, Lowenstein DH. Prognostic factors of pentobarbital therapy for refractory generalized status epilepticus. Neurology. 1993 May;43(5):895-900. Abstract

87. Jambaque I, Hertz-Pannier L, Mikaeloff Y, et al. Severe memory impairment in a child with bihippocampal injury after status epilepticus. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2006 Mar;48(3):223-6.Full text  Abstract

88. Hawkes MA, Hocker SE. Systemic complications following status epilepticus. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep. 2018 Feb 7;18(2):7.Full text  Abstract

89. Hocker S, Nagarajan E, Rabinstein AA, et al. Progressive brain atrophy in super-refractory status epilepticus. JAMA Neurol. 2016 Oct 1;73(10):1201-7.Full text  Abstract

90. Gramstad A, Power KN, Engelsen BA. Neuropsychological performance 1 year after status epilepticus in adults. Arch Clin Neuropsychol. 2021 Apr 21;36(3):329-38. Abstract

91. Rodrigo-Gisbert M, Gómez-Dabó L, Quintana M, et al. Prediction of long-term unprovoked seizures after status epilepticus. Epilepsia. 2023 Sep;64(9):2399-408. Abstract