Lichen sclerosus

Simms-Cendan J, Hoover K, Marathe K, et al. NASPAG clinical opinion: diagnosis and management of lichen sclerosis in pediatric and adolescent patients. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol. 2022 Apr;35(2):112-20. Abstract

van der Meijden WI, Boffa MJ, Ter Harmsel B, et al. 2021 European guideline for the management of vulval conditions. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2022 Jul;36(7):952-72.Full text  Abstract

Lewis FM, Tatnall FM, Velangi SS, et al. British Association of Dermatologists guidelines for the management of lichen sclerosus, 2018. Br J Dermatol. 2018 Apr;178(4):839-53.Full text  Abstract

Kirtschig G, Kinberger M, Kreuter A, et al; European Dermatology Forum. EuroGuiDerm guideline on lichen sclerosus. Jun 2023 [internet publication].Full text

American College of Obstericians and Gynecologists. Diagnosis and management of vulvar skin disorders: ACOG practice bulletin summary, number 224. Obstet Gynecol. 2020 Jul;136(1):222-5. Abstract

1. Wallace HJ. Lichen sclerosus et atrophicus. Trans St Johns Hosp Dermatol Soc. 1971;57(1):9-30. Abstract

2. Powell JJ, Wojnarowska F. Lichen sclerosus. Lancet. 1999 May 22;353(9166):1777-83. Abstract

3. Sheinis M, Selk A. Development of the Adult Vulvar Lichen Sclerosus Severity Scale - a Delphi consensus exercise for item generation. J Low Genit Tract Dis. 2018 Jan;22(1):66-73.Full text  Abstract

4. Micheletti L, Preti M, Radici G, et al. Vulvar lichen sclerosus and neoplastic transformation: a retrospective study of 976 cases. J Low Genit Tract Dis. 2016 Apr;20(2):180-3. Abstract

5. Vieira-Baptista P, Pérez-López FR, López-Baena MT, et al. Risk of development of vulvar cancer in women with lichen sclerosus or lichen planus: a systematic review. J Low Genit Tract Dis. 2022 Jul 1;26(3):250-7. Abstract

6. Shah M, van Bodegraven B. Male genital lichen sclerosus and associated symptoms range and severity: results of a questionnaire study. Skin Health Dis. 2023 Oct;3(5):e246.Full text  Abstract

7. Simms-Cendan J, Hoover K, Marathe K, et al. NASPAG clinical opinion: diagnosis and management of lichen sclerosis in pediatric and adolescent patients. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol. 2022 Apr;35(2):112-20. Abstract

8. Celis S, Reed F, Murphy F, et al. Balanitis xerotica obliterans in children and adolescents: a literature review and clinical series. J Pediatr Urol. 2014 Feb;10(1):34-9.Full text  Abstract

9. Chalmers RJ, Burton PA, Bennett RF, et al. Lichen sclerosus et atrophicus. A common and distinctive cause of phimosis in boys. Arch Dermatol. 1984 Aug;120(8):1025-7. Abstract

10. Wang M, Arlen AM, Vash-Margita A. Characteristics among premenarchal girls with lichen sclerosus. J Low Genit Tract Dis. 2021 Apr 1;25(2):152-7. Abstract

11. Fistarol SK, Itin PH. Diagnosis and treatment of lichen sclerosus: an update. Am J Clin Dermatol. 2013 Feb;14(1):27-47.Full text  Abstract

12. Melnick LE, Steuer AB, Bieber AK, et al. Lichen sclerosus among women in the United States. Int J Womens Dermatol. 2020 Sep;6(4):260-2.Full text  Abstract

13. Goldstein AT, Marinoff SC, Christopher K, et al. Prevalence of vulvar lichen sclerosus in a general gynecology practice. J Reprod Med. 2005 Jul;50(7):477-80. Abstract

14. Kirtschig G. Lichen sclerosus: presentation, diagnosis and management. Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2016 May 13;113(19):337-43.Full text  Abstract

15. Virgili A, Borghi A, Cazzaniga S, et al. New insights into potential risk factors and associations in genital lichen sclerosus: data from a multicentre Italian study on 729 consecutive cases. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2017 Apr;31(4):699-704. Abstract

16. Bleeker MC, Visser PJ, Overbeek LI, et al. Lichen sclerosus: incidence and risk of vulvar squamous cell carcinoma. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2016 Aug;25(8):1224-30.Full text  Abstract

17. Kolitz E, Gammon L, Mauskar M. Vulvar lichen sclerosus in women of reproductive age. Proc (Bayl Univ Med Cent). 2021 Feb 22;34(3):349-51. Abstract

18. Trokoudes D, Lewis FM. Lichen sclerosus - the course during pregnancy and effect on delivery. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2019 Dec;33(12):e466-8. Abstract

19. Higgins CA, Cruickshank ME. A population-based case-control study of aetiological factors associated with vulval lichen sclerosus. J Obstet Gynaecol. 2012 Apr;32(3):271-5. Abstract

20. Sherman V, McPherson T, Baldo M, et al. The high rate of familial lichen sclerosus suggests a genetic contribution: an observational cohort study. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2010 Sep;24(9):1031-4. Abstract

21. Bieber AK, Steuer AB, Melnick LE, et al. Autoimmune and dermatologic conditions associated with lichen sclerosus. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2021 Jul;85(1):228-9.Full text  Abstract

22. Terlou A, Santegoets LA, van der Meijden WI, et al. An autoimmune phenotype in vulvar lichen sclerosus and lichen planus: a Th1 response and high levels of microRNA-155. J Invest Dermatol. 2012 Mar;132(3 pt 1):658-66.Full text  Abstract

23. Cooper SM, Ali I, Baldo M, et al. The association of lichen sclerosus and erosive lichen planus of the vulva with autoimmune disease: a case-control study. Arch Dermatol. 2008 Nov;144(11):1432-5.Full text  Abstract

24. Fan R, Leasure AC, Maisha FI, et al. Thyroid disorders associated with lichen sclerosus: a case-control study in the All of Us Research Program. Br J Dermatol. 2022 Nov;187(5):797-9. Abstract

25. Kreuter A, Kryvosheyeva Y, Terras S, et al. Association of autoimmune diseases with lichen sclerosus in 532 male and female patients. Acta Derm Venereol. 2013 Mar 27;93(2):238-41.Full text  Abstract

26. Hofer MD, Meeks JJ, Mehdiratta N, et al. Lichen sclerosus in men is associated with elevated body mass index, diabetes mellitus, coronary artery disease and smoking. World J Urol. 2014 Feb;32(1):105-8. Abstract

27. Ranum A, Freese R, Ramesh V, et al. Lichen sclerosus in female patients is associated with an increased risk of metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular comorbidities: a retrospective cohort review. Br J Dermatol. 2022 Dec;187(6):1030-2. Abstract

28. Kazandi M, Sahin C, Terek MC, et al. Clinical evaluation of vulvar lichen sclerosus: case series. Eur J Gynaecol Oncol. 2010;31(5):555-8. Abstract

29. De Luca DA, Papara C, Vorobyev A, et al. Lichen sclerosus: the 2023 update. Front Med (Lausanne). 2023;10:1106318.Full text  Abstract

30. Chan I, Oyama N, Neill SM, et al. Characterization of IgG autoantibodies to extracellular matrix protein 1 in lichen sclerosus. Clin Exp Dermatol. 2004 Sep;29(5):499-504. Abstract

31. Bunker CB. Diseases and disorders of the male genitalia. In: Fitzpatrick's dermatology in general medicine. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2003: Chapter 3.

32. Bunker CB, Shim TN. Male genital lichen sclerosus. Indian J Dermatol. 2015 Mar-Apr;60(2):111-7. Abstract

33. Owen CM, Yell JA. Genital lichen sclerosus associated with incontinence. J Obstet Gynaecol. 2002 Mar;22(2):209-10. Abstract

34. van der Meijden WI, Boffa MJ, Ter Harmsel B, et al. 2021 European guideline for the management of vulval conditions. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2022 Jul;36(7):952-72.Full text  Abstract

35. Lewis FM, Tatnall FM, Velangi SS, et al. British Association of Dermatologists guidelines for the management of lichen sclerosus, 2018. Br J Dermatol. 2018 Apr;178(4):839-53.Full text  Abstract

36. Pérez-López FR, Ceausu I, Depypere H, et al. EMAS clinical guide: vulvar lichen sclerosus in peri and postmenopausal women. Maturitas. 2013 Mar;74(3):279-82.Full text  Abstract

37. Lagerstedt M, Karvinen K, Joki-Erkkilä M, et al. Childhood lichen sclerosus - a challenge for clinicians. Pediatr Dermatol. 2013 Jul-Aug;30(4):444-50. Abstract

38. Matela AM, Hagström J, Ruokonen H. Lichen sclerosus of the oral mucosa: clinical and histopathological findings. Review of the literature and a case report. Acta Odontol Scand. 2018 Jul;76(5):364-73. Abstract

39. Fan R, Leasure AC, Maisha FI, et al. Depression and anxiety in patients with lichen sclerosus. JAMA Dermatol. 2022 Aug 1;158(8):953-4. Abstract

40. Vittrup G, Westmark S, Riis J, et al. The impact of psychosexual counseling in women lith lichen sclerosus: a randomized controlled trial. J Low Genit Tract Dis. 2022 Jul 1;26(3):258-64.Full text  Abstract

41. Van de Nieuwenhof HP, Meeuwis KA, Nieboer TE, et al. The effect of vulvar lichen sclerosus on quality of life and sexual functioning. J Psychosom Obstet Gynaecol. 2010 Dec;31(4):279-84.Full text  Abstract

42. Wijaya M, Lee G, Fischer G, et al. Quality of life in vulvar lichen sclerosus patients treated with long-term topical corticosteroids. J Low Genit Tract Dis. 2021 Apr 1;25(2):158-65. Abstract

43. Jabłonowska O, Woźniacka A, Szkarłat S, et al. Female genital lichen sclerosus is connected with a higher depression rate, decreased sexual quality of life and diminished work productivity. PLoS One. 2023;18(4):e0284948.Full text  Abstract

44. Arnold S, Fernando S, Rees S. Living with vulval lichen sclerosus: a qualitative interview study. Br J Dermatol. 2022 Dec;187(6):909-18.Full text  Abstract

45. Mauskar MM, Marathe K, Venkatesan A, et al. Vulvar diseases: conditions in adults and children. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2020 Jun;82(6):1287-98. Abstract

46. Krapf JM, Smith AB, Cigna ST, et al. Presenting symptoms and diagnosis of vulvar lichen sclerosus in premenopausal women: a cross-sectional study. J Low Genit Tract Dis. 2022 Jul 1;26(3):27175. Abstract

47. Pope R, Lee MH, Myers A, et al. Lichen sclerosus and sexual dysfunction: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Sex Med. 2022 Nov;19(11):1616-24. Abstract

48. Riddell L, Edwards A, Sherrard J. Clinical features of lichen sclerosus in men attending a department of genitourinary medicine. Sex Transm Infect. 2000 Aug;76(4):311-3. Abstract

49. Pelisse M. Lichen sclerosus [in French]. Ann Dermatol Venereol. 1987;114(3):411-9. Abstract

50. Edmonds EV, Hunt S, Hawkins D, et al. Clinical parameters in male genital lichen sclerosus: a case series of 329 patients. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2012 Jun;26(6):730-7. Abstract

51. Dalziel K, Shaw S. Lichen sclerosus. BMJ. 2010 Feb 15;340:c731. Abstract

52. Kiss A, Király L, Kutasy B, et al. High incidence of balanitis xerotica obliterans in boys with phimosis: prospective 10-year study. Pediatr Dermatol. 2005 Jul-Aug;22(4):305-8. Abstract

53. Meuli M, Briner J, Hanimann B, et al. Lichen sclerosus et atrophicus causing phimosis in boys: a prospective study with 5-year followup after complete circumcision. J Urol. 1994 Sep;152(3):987-9. Abstract

54. Yardley IE, Cosgrove C, Lambert AW. Paediatric preputial pathology: are we circumcising enough? Ann R Coll Surg Engl. 2007 Jan;89(1):62-5.Full text  Abstract

55. Powell J, Wojnarowska F. Childhood vulvar lichen sclerosus: an increasingly common problem. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2001 May;44(5):803-6. Abstract

56. Kirtschig G, Kinberger M, Kreuter A, et al; European Dermatology Forum. EuroGuiDerm guideline on lichen sclerosus. Jun 2023 [internet publication].Full text

57. Nair PA. Vulvar Lichen sclerosus et atrophicus. J Midlife Health. 2017 Apr-Jun;8(2):55-62.Full text  Abstract

58. Cooper SM, Gao XH, Powell JJ, et al. Does treatment of vulvar lichen sclerosus influence its prognosis? Arch Dermatol. 2004 Jun;140(6):702-6.Full text  Abstract

59. Mahajan SA, Dave JS. Dermoscopic evaluation of extragenital lichen sclerosus et atrophicus. Dermatol Pract Concept. 2022 Jul;12(3):e2022125.Full text  Abstract

60. Garrido-Ríos AA, Alvarez-Garrido H, Sanz-Muñoz C, et al. Dermoscopy of extragenital lichen sclerosus. Arch Dermatol. 2009 Dec;145(12):1468. Abstract

61. American College of Obstericians and Gynecologists. Diagnosis and management of vulvar skin disorders: ACOG practice bulletin summary, number 224. Obstet Gynecol. 2020 Jul;136(1):222-5. Abstract

62. Borretta LJ, Crawford RI. CD34 Staining in disorders of collagen degeneration other than morphea. Am J Dermatopathol. 2020 Aug;42(8):623-4.Full text  Abstract

63. Weyers W. Hypertrophic lichen sclerosus sine sclerosis: clues to histopathologic diagnosis when presenting as psoriasiform lichenoid dermatitis. J Cutan Pathol. 2015 Feb;42(2):118-29. Abstract

64. Huisman BW, Pagan L, Naafs RGC, et al. Dermatoscopy and optical coherence tomography in vulvar high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions and lichen sclerosus: a prospective observational trial. J Low Genit Tract Dis. 2023 Jul 1;27(3):255-61.Full text  Abstract

65. Huisman BW, Pagan L, Ulrich M, et al. Reflectance confocal microscopy as a non-invasive imaging tool in vulvar high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions and lichen sclerosus: a descriptive morphological study in patients and healthy volunteers. Exp Dermatol. 2023 Oct;32(10):1734-43.Full text  Abstract

66. Zhou MY, Wang YK, Zhu QL, et al. High-frequency ultrasound features in vulvar lichen sclerosus and correlation with histopathology. Skin Res Technol. 2022 Nov;28(6):780-5.Full text  Abstract

67. Day T, Selim MA, Allbritton JI, et al. Nonsclerotic lichen sclerosus: definition of a concept and pathologic description. J Low Genit Tract Dis. 2023 Oct 1;27(4):358-64.Full text  Abstract

68. Khan Mohammad Beigi P. The immunogenetics of morphea and lichen sclerosus. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2022;1367:155-72. Abstract

69. Lutz V, Francès C, Bessis D, et al. High frequency of genital lichen sclerosus in a prospective series of 76 patients with morphea: toward a better understanding of the spectrum of morphea. Arch Dermatol. 2012 Jan;148(1):24-8.Full text  Abstract

70. Veronesi G, Virdi A, Leuzzi M, et al. Vulvar vitiligo and lichen sclerosus in children: a clinical challenge. Pediatr Dermatol. 2021 Sep;38(5):1012-9. Abstract

71. Esse I, Rodriguez KH, Kassels A, et al. Vulvar lichen sclerosus and vitiligo: overlap and clinical features. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2023 Oct;89(4):839-41.Full text  Abstract

72. Day T, Wilkinson E, Rowan D, et al. Clinicopathologic diagnostic criteria for vulvar lichen planus. J Low Genit Tract Dis. 2020 Jul;24(3):317-29.Full text  Abstract

73. Pappas PG, Kauffman CA, Andes DR, et al. Clinical practice guideline for the management of candidiasis: 2016 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2016 Feb 15;62(4):e1-50.Full text  Abstract

74. Vandeweege S, Debaene B, Lapeere H, et al. A systematic review of allergic and irritant contact dermatitis of the vulva: the most important allergens/irritants and the role of patch testing. Contact Dermatitis. 2023 Apr;88(4):249-62. Abstract

75. The NAMS 2020 GSM Position Statement Editorial Panel. The 2020 genitourinary syndrome of menopause position statement of The North American Menopause Society. Menopause. 2020 Sep;27(9):976-92. Abstract

76. Croker BA, Scurry JP, Petry FM, et al. Vestibular sclerosis: is this a new, distinct clinicopathological entity? J Low Genit Tract Dis. 2018 Jul;22(3):260-3. Abstract

77. Day T, Burston K, Dennerstein G, et al. Vestibulovaginal sclerosis versus lichen sclerosus. Int J Gynecol Pathol. 2018 Jul;37(4):356-63.Full text  Abstract

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79. ​​Elston D. ​Dermatopathology. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2018.

80. Das A, Gupta S, Singh S, et al. Coexisting morphea with lichen sclerosus et atrophicus in a single lesion - a rare case report. Bangladesh J Med Sci. 2016 Apr;15(1):145-7​.

81. Nishioka S. Histological comparison of morphea and lichen sclerosus et atrophicus. Kurume Med J. 1997;44(2):83-90.Full text  Abstract

82. Lee A, Bradford J, Fischer G. Long-term management of adult vulvar lichen sclerosus: a prospective cohort study of 507 women. JAMA Dermatol. 2015 Oct;151(10):1061-7.Full text  Abstract

83. Smith YR, Quint EH. Clobetasol propionate in the treatment of premenarchal vulvar lichen sclerosus. Obstet Gynecol. 2001 Oct;98(4):588-91. Abstract

84. Siegfried EC, Jaworski JC, Hebert AA. Topical calcineurin inhibitors and lymphoma risk: evidence update with implications for daily practice. Am J Clin Dermatol. 2013 Jun;14(3):163-78.Full text  Abstract

85. Delpero E, Sriharan A, Selk A. Steroid phobia in patients with vulvar lichen sclerosus. J Low Genit Tract Dis. 2023 Jul 1;27(3):286-90. Abstract

86. Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency. Topical corticosteroids: information on the risk of topical steroid withdrawal reactions. Sep 2021 [internet publication].Full text

87. Chan A, Hanna M, Abbott M, et al. Oral retinoids and pregnancy. Med J Aust. 1996 Aug 5;165(3):164-7. Abstract

88. Boero V, Cavalli R, Caia C, et al. Pediatric vulvar lichen sclerosus: does it resolve or does it persist after menarche? Pediatr Dermatol. 2023 May-Jun;40(3):472-5.Full text  Abstract

89. Casey GA, Cooper SM, Powell JJ. Treatment of vulvar lichen sclerosus with topical corticosteroids in children: a study of 72 children. Clin Exp Dermatol. 2015 Apr;40(3):289-92.Full text  Abstract

90. Ellis E, Fischer G. Prepubertal-onset vulvar lichen sclerosus: the importance of maintenance therapy in long-term outcomes. Pediatr Dermatol. 2015 Jul-Aug;32(4):461-7. Abstract

91. Bradford J, Fischer G. Surgical division of labial adhesions in vulvar lichen sclerosus and lichen planus. J Low Genit Tract Dis. 2013 Jan;17(1):48-50. Abstract

92. Lauber F, Vaz I, Krebs J, et al. Outcome of perineoplasty and de-adhesion in patients with vulvar Lichen sclerosus and sexual disorders. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2021 Mar;258:38-42. Abstract

93. Myers MC, Romanello JP, Nico E, et al. A retrospective case series on patient satisfaction and efficacy of non-surgical lysis of clitoral adhesions. J Sex Med. 2022 Sep;19(9):1412-20.Full text  Abstract

94. Nguyen Y, Bradford J, Fischer G. Lichen sclerosus in pregnancy: a review of 33 cases. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol. 2018 Dec;58(6):686-9. Abstract

95. Stewart K, Javaid S, Schallen KP, et al. Fractional CO(2) laser treatment as adjunctive therapy to topical steroids for managing vulvar lichen sclerosus. Lasers Surg Med. 2022 Jan;54(1):138-51. Abstract

96. Lee A, Lim A, Fischer G. Fractional carbon dioxide laser in recalcitrant vulval lichen sclerosus. Australas J Dermatol. 2016 Feb;57(1):39-43. Abstract

97. Burkett LS, Siddique M, Zeymo A, et al. Clobetasol compared with fractionated carbon dioxide laser for lichen sclerosus: a randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol. 2021 Jun 1;137(6):968-78. Abstract

98. Mitchell L, Goldstein AT, Heller D, et al. Fractionated carbon dioxide laser for the treatment of vulvar lichen sclerosus: a randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol. 2021 Jun 1;137(6):979-87.Full text  Abstract

99. Almadori A, Hansen E, Boyle D, et al. Fat grafting improves fibrosis and scarring in vulvar lichen sclerosus: results from a prospective cohort study. J Low Genit Tract Dis. 2020 Jul;24(3):305-10. Abstract

100. Bao C, Xu Q, Xiao Z, et al. Abrocitinib as a novel treatment for lichen sclerosus. Br J Dermatol. 2023 Jul 7;189(1):136-8. Abstract

101. Manuelpillai N, Saunders H, Veysey E. Management of severe vulval lichen sclerosus with adalimumab. Australas J Dermatol. 2022 May;63(2):248-50. Abstract

102. Krapf JM, Mitchell L, Holton MA, et al. Vulvar lichen sclerosus: current perspectives. Int J Womens Health. 2020;12:11-20.Full text  Abstract

103. Morrel B, van der Avoort IAM, Ewing-Graham PC, et al. Long-term consequences of juvenile vulvar lichen sclerosus: a cohort study of adults with a histologically confirmed diagnosis in childhood or adolescence. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2023 Nov;102(11):1469-78.Full text  Abstract

104. Spekreijse JJ, Streng BMM, Vermeulen RFM, et al. The risk of developing squamous cell carcinoma in patients with anogenital lichen sclerosis: A systematic review. Gynecol Oncol. 2020 Jun;157(3):671-7. Abstract

105. van de Nieuwenhof HP, van der Avoort IA, de Hullu JA. Review of squamous premalignant vulvar lesions. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol. 2008 Nov;68(2):131-56.Full text  Abstract

106. Philippou P, Shabbir M, Ralph DJ, et al. Genital lichen sclerosus/balanitis xerotica obliterans in men with penile carcinoma: a critical analysis. BJU Int. 2013 May;111(6):970-6. Abstract

107. National Comprehensive Cancer Network. NCCN clinical practice guidelines in oncology: vulvar cancer [internet publication].Full text

108. Virgen CA, Sanchez II, Elsensohn AN, et al. Vulvar squamous cell carcinoma guidelines do not include tissue-sparing techniques as a treatment option. Int J Womens Dermatol. 2023 Mar;9(1):e078.Full text  Abstract

109. Kravvas G, Ge L, Ng J, et al. The management of penile intraepithelial neoplasia (PeIN): clinical and histological features and treatment of 345 patients and a review of the literature. J Dermatolog Treat. 2022 Mar;33(2):1047-62. Abstract

110. Ghaderi F, Bastani P, Hajebrahimi S, et al. Pelvic floor rehabilitation in the treatment of women with dyspareunia: a randomized controlled clinical trial. Int Urogynecol J. 2019 Nov;30(11):1849-55.Full text  Abstract

111. Christman MS, Chen JT, Holmes NM. Obstructive complications of lichen sclerosus. J Pediatr Urol. 2009 Jun;5(3):165-9. Abstract

112. Gungor Ugurlucan F, Yasa C, Tas IS, et al. Complete labial fusion causing urinary retention in a postmenopausal woman. Am J Clin Exp Urol. 2021;9(5):413-5. Abstract