References
Key articles
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 5th ed., text revision, (DSM-5-TR). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2022.
Phillips KA, Kelly MM. Body dysmorphic disorder: clinical overview and relationship to obsessive-compulsive disorder. Focus (Am Psychiatr Publ). 2021 Oct;19(4):413-9.Full text Abstract
Singh AR, Veale D. Understanding and treating body dysmorphic disorder. Indian J Psychiatry. 2019 Jan;61(Suppl 1):S131-5.Full text Abstract
Castle D, Beilharz F, Phillips KA, et al. Body dysmorphic disorder: a treatment synthesis and consensus on behalf of the International College of Obsessive-Compulsive Spectrum Disorders and the Obsessive Compulsive and Related Disorders Network of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2021 Mar 1;36(2):61-75.Full text Abstract
Reference articles
1. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 5th ed., text revision, (DSM-5-TR). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2022.
2. Rief W, Buhlmann U, Wilhelm S, et al. The prevalence of body dysmorphic disorder: a population-based survey. Psychol Med. 2006 Jun;36(6):877-85. Abstract
3. Koran LM, Abujaoude E, Large MD, et al. The prevalence of body dysmorphic disorder in the United States adult population. CNS Spectr. 2008 Apr;13(4):316-22. Abstract
4. Schieber K, Kollei I, de Zwaan M, et al. Classification of body dysmorphic disorder - what is the advantage of the new DSM-5 criteria? J Psychosom Res. 2015 Mar;78(3):223-7. Abstract
5. Veale D, Gledhill LJ, Christodoulou P, et al. Body dysmorphic disorder in different settings: a systematic review and estimated weighted prevalence. Body Image. 2016 Sep;18:168-86.Full text Abstract
6. Bjornsson AS, Didie ER, Grant JE, et al. Age at onset and clinical correlates in body dysmorphic disorder. Compr Psychiatry. 2013 Oct;54(7):893-903.Full text Abstract
7. Hartmann AS, Buhlmann U. Prevalence and underrecognition of body dysmorphic disorder. In: Phillips KA, ed. Body dysmorphic disorder: advances in research and clinical practice. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2017:49.
8. Brohede S, Wingren G, Wijma B, et al. Prevalence of body dysmorphic disorder among Swedish women: a population-based study. Compr Psychiatry. 2015 Apr;58:108-15. Abstract
9. Enander J, Ivanov VZ, Mataix-Cols D, et al. Prevalence and heritability of body dysmorphic symptoms in adolescents and young adults: a population-based nationwide twin study. Psychol Med. 2018 Dec;48(16):2740-7.Full text Abstract
10. Monzani B, Rijsdijk F, Anson M, et al. A twin study of body dysmorphic concerns. Psychol Med. 2012 Sep;42(9):1949-55. Abstract
11. Monzani B, Rijsdijk F, Harris J, et al. The structure of genetic and environmental risk factors for dimensional representations of DSM-5 obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorders. JAMA Psychiatry. 2014 Feb;71(2):182-9.Full text Abstract
12. Monzani B, Rijsdijk F, Iervolino AC, ey al. Evidence for a genetic overlap between body dysmorphic concerns and obsessive-compulsive symptoms in an adult female community twin sample. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2012 Jun;159B(4):376-82. Abstract
13. Didie ER, Tortolani CC, Pope CG, et al. Childhood abuse and neglect in body dysmorphic disorder. Child Abuse Negl. 2006 Oct;30(10):1105-15.Full text Abstract
14. Neziroglu F, Khemlani-Patel S, Yaryura-Tobias JA. Rates of abuse in body dysmorphic disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Body Image. 2006 Jun;3(2):189-93. Abstract
15. Buhlmann U, Marques LM, Wilhelm S. Traumatic experiences in individuals with body dysmorphic disorder. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2012 Jan;200(1):95-8. Abstract
16. Buhlmann U, Cook LM, Fama JM, et al. Perceived teasing experiences in body dysmorphic disorder. Body Image. 2007 Dec;4(4):381-5. Abstract
17. Feusner JD, Hembacher E, Moller H, et al. Abnormalities of object visual processing in body dysmorphic disorder. Psychol Med. 2011 Nov;41(11):2385-97.Full text Abstract
18. Feusner JD, Townsend J, Bystritsky A, et al. Visual information processing of faces in body dysmorphic disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2007 Dec;64(12):1417-25.Full text Abstract
19. Li W, Lai TM, Bohon C, et al. Anorexia nervosa and body dysmorphic disorder are associated with abnormalities in processing visual information. Psychol Med. 2015 Jul;45(10):2111-22.Full text Abstract
20. Buchanan BG, Rossell SL, Maller JJ, et al. Brain connectivity in body dysmorphic disorder compared with controls: a diffusion tensor imaging study. Psychol Med. 2013 Dec;43(12):2513-21. Abstract
21. Beucke JC, Sepulcre J, Buhlmann U, et al. Degree connectivity in body dysmorphic disorder and relationships with obsessive and compulsive symptoms. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2016 Oct;26(10):1657-66.Full text Abstract
22. Wong WW, Rangaprakash D, Moody TD, et al. Dynamic effective connectivity patterns during rapid face stimuli presentation in body dysmorphic disorder. Front Neurosci. 2022 May 24;16:890424.Full text Abstract
23. Buhlmann U, Hartmann AS. Cognitive and emotional processing in body dysmorphic disorder. In: Phillips KA, Ed. Body dysmorphic disorder: advances in research and clinical practice. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2017:285.
24. Bienvenu OJ, Samuels JF, Riddle MA, et al. The relationship of obsessive-compulsive disorder to possible spectrum disorders: results from a family study. Biol Psychiatry. 2000 Aug 15;48(4):287-93. Abstract
25. Bienvenu OJ, Samuels JF, Wuyek LA, et al. Is obsessive-compulsive disorder an anxiety disorder, and what, if any, are spectrum conditions? A family study perspective. Psychol Med. 2012 Jan;42(1):1-13. Abstract
26. Simmons R, Phillips KA. Core clinical features of body dysmorphic disorder: appearance preoccupations, negative emotions, core beliefs, and repetitive and avoidance behaviors. In: Phillips KA, ed. Body dysmorphic disorder: advances in research and clinical practice. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2017:61-80.
27. Phillips KA, McElroy SL. Personality disorders and traits in patients with body dysmorphic disorder. Compr Psychiatry. 2000 Jul-Aug;41(4):229-36. Abstract
28. Baldock E, Veale, D. The self as an aesthetic object: body image, beliefs about the self, and shame in a cognitive-behavioral model of body dysmorphic disorder. In: Phillips KA, ed. Body dysmorphic disorder: advances in research and clinical practice. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2017:299-310.
29. Kelly MM, Didie ER, Phillips KA. Personal and appearance-based rejection sensitivity in body dysmorphic disorder. Body Image. 2014 Jun;11(3):260-5.Full text Abstract
30. Kelly Y, Zilanawala A, Booker C, et al. Social media use and adolescent mental health: findings from the UK millennium cohort study. EClinicalMedicine. 2019 Jan 4;6:59-68.Full text Abstract
31. Alsaidan MS, Altayar NS, Alshmmari SH, et al. The prevalence and determinants of body dysmorphic disorder among young social media users: a cross-sectional study. Dermatol Reports. 2020 Dec 22;12(3):8774.Full text Abstract
32. Phillips KA, Menard W, Fay C, et al. Psychosocial functioning and quality of life in body dysmorphic disorder. Compr Psychiatry. 2005 Jul-Aug;46(4):254-60.Full text Abstract
33. Phillips KA, Kelly MM. Body dysmorphic disorder: clinical overview and relationship to obsessive-compulsive disorder. Focus (Am Psychiatr Publ). 2021 Oct;19(4):413-9.Full text Abstract
34. Singh AR, Veale D. Understanding and treating body dysmorphic disorder. Indian J Psychiatry. 2019 Jan;61(Suppl 1):S131-5.Full text Abstract
35. Phillips KA, Grant J, Siniscalchi J, et al. Surgical and nonpsychiatric medical treatment of patients with body dysmorphic disorder. Psychosomatics. 2001 Nov-Dec;42(6):504-10.Full text Abstract
36. Sarwer DB. Awareness and identification of body dysmorphic disorder by aesthetic surgeons: results of a survey of American Society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery members. Aesthet Surg J. 2002 Nov;22(6):531-5.Full text Abstract
37. Willams J, First M, Karg RS, et al. Structured clinical interview for DSM-5® disorders - clinician version (SCID-5-CV). Arlington: American Psychiatric Association Publishing; 2016.
38. Phillips KA, Gunderson CG, Mallya G, et al. A comparison study of body dysmorphic disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 1998 Nov;59(11):568-75. Abstract
39. Phillips KA, Menard W, Fay C, et al. Demographic characteristics, phenomenology, comorbidity, and family history in 200 individuals with body dysmorphic disorder. Psychosomatics. 2005 Jul-Aug;46(4):317-25.Full text Abstract
40. Neziroglu F, Cash TF. Body dysmorphic disorder: causes, characteristics, and clinical treatments. Body Image. 2008 Mar;5(1):1-2. Abstract
41. Hart AS, Phillips KA. Symmetry concerns as a symptom of body dysmorphic disorder. J Obsessive Compuls Relat Disord. 2013 Jul 1;2(3):292-8.Full text Abstract
42. Pope CG, Pope HG, Menard W, et al. Clinical features of muscle dysmorphia among males with body dysmorphic disorder. Body Image. 2005 Dec;2(4):395-400.Full text Abstract
43. Grant JE, Menard W, Phillips KA. Pathological skin picking in individuals with body dysmorphic disorder. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2006 Nov-Dec;28(6):487-93.Full text Abstract
44. Phillips KA. The broken mirror: understanding and treating body dysmorphic disorder. Revised and expanded edition. New York: Oxford University Press; 2005.
45. Albertini RS, Phillips KA. Thirty-three cases of body dysmorphic disorder in children and adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1999 Apr;38(4):453-9.Full text Abstract
46. Kelly M, Simmons R, Wang S, et al. Motives to drink alcohol among individuals with body dysmorphic disorder. J Obsessive Compuls Relat Disord. 2017;12:52-7.
47. Phillips KA, Pinto A, Hart AS, et al. A comparison of insight in body dysmorphic disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Psychiatr Res. 2012 Oct;46(10):1293-9.Full text Abstract
48. Pinto A, Phillips KA. Social anxiety in body dysmorphic disorder. Body Image. 2005 Dec;2(4):401-5.Full text Abstract
49. Rizert T, Brodt M, Kelly M, et al. Social avoidance as a predictor of psychosocial functioning in body dysmorphic disorder: a prospective longitudinal analysis. Cognitive Therapy and Research. 2020;44:557-66.
50. Phillips KA, Didie ER, Menard W, et al. Clinical features of body dysmorphic disorder in adolescents and adults. Psychiatry Res. 2006 Mar 30;141(3):305-14.Full text Abstract
51. Phillips KA. Assessment of body dysmorphic disorder: screening, diagnosis, severity, and insight. In: Phillips KA, ed. Body dysmorphic disorder: advances in research and clinical practice. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2017:204-25.
52. National Institue for Health and Care Excellence. Obsessive-compulsive disorder and body dysmorphic disorder: treatment. Nov 2005 [internet publication].Full text
53. Phillips KA. Understanding body dysmorphic disorder: an essential guide. New York: Oxford University Press; 2009.
54. Dufresne RG, Phillips KA, Vittorio CC, et al. A screening questionnaire for body dysmorphic disorder in a cosmetic dermatologic surgery practice. Dermatol Surg. 2001 May;27(5):457-62. Abstract
55. Mancuso SG, Knoesen NP, Castle DJ. The dysmorphic concern questionnaire: a screening measure for body dysmorphic disorder. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2010 Jun;44(6):535-42. Abstract
56. Veale D, Ellison N, Werner TG, et al. Development of a cosmetic procedure screening questionnaire (COPS) for body dysmorphic disorder. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg. 2012 Apr;65(4):530-2.Full text Abstract
57. Phillips KA, Hollander E, Rasmussen SA, et al. A severity rating scale for body dysmorphic disorder: development, reliability, and validity of a modified version of the Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale. Psychopharmacol Bull. 1997;33(1):17-22. Abstract
58. Eisen JL, Phillips KA, Baer L, et al. The Brown assessment of beliefs scale: reliability and validity. Am J Psychiatry. 1998 Jan;155(1):102-8.Full text Abstract
59. Angelakis I, Gooding PA, Panagioti M. Suicidality in body dysmorphic disorder (BDD): a systematic review with meta-analysis. Clin Psychol Rev. 2016 Nov;49:55-66. Abstract
60. Snorrason I, Beard C, Christensen K, et al. Body dysmorphic disorder and major depressive episode have comorbidity-independent associations with suicidality in an acute psychiatric setting. J Affect Disord. 2019 Dec 1;259:266-70. Abstract
61. Phillips KA. Differentiating body dysmorphic disorder from normal appearance concerns and other mental disorders. In: Phillips KA, ed. Body dysmorphic disorder: advances in research and clinical practice. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2017:226-40.
62. World Health Organization. International classification of diseases, 11th revision. Jan 2023 [internet publication].Full text
63. Kogan CS, Stein DJ, Rebello TJ, et al. Accuracy of diagnostic judgments using ICD-11 vs. ICD-10 diagnostic guidelines for obsessive-compulsive and related disorders. J Affect Disord. 2020 Aug 1;273:328-40. Abstract
64. Castle D, Beilharz F, Phillips KA, et al. Body dysmorphic disorder: a treatment synthesis and consensus on behalf of the International College of Obsessive-Compulsive Spectrum Disorders and the Obsessive Compulsive and Related Disorders Network of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2021 Mar 1;36(2):61-75.Full text Abstract
65. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Committee opinion no. 686 summary: breast and labial surgery in adolescents. Obstet Gynecol. 2017 Jan;129(1):235.Full text Abstract
66. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Elective female genital cosmetic surgery: ACOG committee opinion summary, number 795. Obstet Gynecol. 2020 Jan;135(1):249-50.Full text Abstract
67. Ishii LE, Tollefson TT, Basura GJ, et al. Clinical practice guideline: improving nasal form and function after rhinoplasty executive summary. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2017 Feb;156(2):205-19.Full text Abstract
68. Ishii LE, Tollefson TT, Basura GJ, et al. Clinical practice guideline: improving nasal form and function after rhinoplasty. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2017 Feb;156(suppl 2):S1-30.Full text Abstract
69. Phillips KA. Pharmacotherapy and other somatic treatments for body dysmorphic disorder. In: Phillips KA, ed. Body dysmorphic disorder: advances in research and clinical practice. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2017:333-55.
70. Koran LM, Hanna GL, Hollander E, et al. Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2007 Jul;164(suppl 7):5-53. Abstract
71. Faraj P, Størset E, Hole K, et al. Pro-arrhythmic effect of escitalopram and citalopram at serum concentrations commonly observed in older patients - a study based on a cohort of 19,742 patients. EBioMedicine. 2023 Aug 26;95:104779.Full text Abstract
72. US Food and Drug Administration. FDA drug safety communication: revised recommendations for Celexa (citalopram hydrobromide) related to a potential risk of abnormal heart rhythms with high doses. Mar 2012 [internet publication].Full text
73. Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency. Citalopram and escitalopram: QT interval prolongation. Dec 2014 [internet publication].Full text
74. Phillips KA. An open study of buspirone augmentation of serotonin-reuptake inhibitors in body dysmorphic disorder. Psychopharmacol Bull. 1996;32(1):175-80. Abstract
75. Phillips KA, Kelly MM. Suicidality in a placebo-controlled fluoxetine study of body dysmorphic disorder. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2009 Jan;24(1):26-8.Full text Abstract
76. Phillips KA, Menard W. Suicidality in body dysmorphic disorder: a prospective study. Am J Psychiatry. 2006 Jul;163(7):1280-2.Full text Abstract
77. Veale D, Anson M, Miles S, et al. Efficacy of cognitive behaviour therapy versus anxiety management for body dysmorphic disorder: a randomised controlled trial. Psychother Psychosom. 2014;83(6):341-53.Full text Abstract
78. Wilhelm S, Phillips KA, Steketee G. Cognitive-behavioral therapy for body dysmorphic disorder: a treatment manual. New York: Guilford Press; 2013.
79. Wilhelm S, Phillips KA, Greenberg JL, et al. Efficacy and posttreatment effects of therapist-delivered cognitive behavioral therapy vs supportive psychotherapy for adults with body dysmorphic disorder: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry. 2019 Apr 1;76(4):363-73.Full text Abstract
80. Veale D, Neziroglu F. Body dysmorphic disorder: a treatment Manual. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell; 2010.
81. Rasmussen J, Gomez AF, Wilhelm S. Cognitive-behavioral therapy for body dysmorphic disorder. In: Philips KA, ed. Body dysmorphic disorder: advances in research and clinical practice. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2017.
82. Hoeppner SS, Hall MD, Hiranandani M, et al. Time to response in therapy for body dysmorphic disorder: a comparison of cognitive-behavioral therapy and supportive psychotherapy. Behavior Therapy. 2023 [in press].
83. Allen A, Hadley SJ, Kaplan A, et al. An open-label trial of venlafaxine in body dysmorphic disorder. CNS Spectr. 2008 Feb;13(2):138-44. Abstract
84. Couto JP, Moreira R. Oral N-acetylcysteine in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder: a systematic review of the clinical evidence. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2018 Aug 30;86:245-54. Abstract
85. Feusner JD, Kerwin L, Saxena S, et al. Differential efficacy of memantine for obsessive-compulsive disorder vs. generalized anxiety disorder: an open-label trial. Psychopharmacol Bull. 2009;42(1):81-93. Abstract
86. Enander J, Andersson E, Mataix-Cols D, et al. Therapist guided internet based cognitive behavioural therapy for body dysmorphic disorder: single blind randomised controlled trial. BMJ. 2016 Feb 2;352:i241.Full text Abstract
87. Wilhelm S, Weingarden H, Greenberg JL, et al. Efficacy of app-based cognitive behavioral therapy for body dysmorphic disorder with coach support: initial randomized controlled clinical trial. Psychother Psychosom. 2022;91(4):277-85.Full text Abstract
88. Linde J, Rück C, Bjureberg J, et al. Acceptance-based exposure therapy for body dysmorphic disorder: a pilot study. Behav Ther. 2015 Jul;46(4):423-31. Abstract
89. Neziroglu, F, Lippman, N. A review of body dysmorphic disorder after 20 years of research. Aus Clin Psych. 2015;1(1):22-9.
90. Phillips KA, Menard W, Quinn E, et al. A 4-year prospective observational follow-up study of course and predictors of course in body dysmorphic disorder. Psychol Med. 2013 May;43(5):1109-17. Abstract
91. Phillips KA, Keshaviah A, Dougherty DD, et al. Pharmacotherapy relapse prevention in body dysmorphic disorder: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Am J Psychiatry. 2016 Sep 1;173(9):887-95.Full text Abstract
92. Harrison A, Fernández de la Cruz L, Enander J, Radua J, Mataix-Cols D. Cognitive-behavioral therapy for body dysmorphic disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Clin Psychol Rev. 2016 Aug;48:43-51. Abstract
93. Krebs G, Fernández de la Cruz L, Monzani B, et al. Long-term outcomes of cognitive-behavioral therapy for adolescent body dysmorphic disorder. Behav Ther. 2017 Jul;48(4):462-73.Full text Abstract
94. Veale D, Miles S, Anson M. Long-term outcome of cognitive behavior therapy for body dysmorphic disorder: a naturalistic case series of 1 to 4 years after a controlled trial. Behav Ther. 2015 Nov;46(6):775-85. Abstract
95. Phillips KA, Coles ME, Menard W, et al. Suicidal ideation and suicide attempts in body dysmorphic disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2005 Jun;66(6):717-25. Abstract
96. Dyl J, Kittler J, Phillips KA, Hunt JI. Body dysmorphic disorder and other clinically significant body image concerns in adolescent psychiatric inpatients: prevalence and clinical characteristics. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev. 2006;36(4):369-82.Full text Abstract
97. Krebs G, Fernández de la Cruz L, Rijsdijk FV, et al. The association between body dysmorphic symptoms and suicidality among adolescents and young adults: a genetically informative study. Psychol Med. 2022 May;52(7):1268-76.Full text Abstract
98. Wenzel A, Brown GK, Beck AT. Cognitive therapy for suicidal patients: scientific and clinical applications. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 2008.
99. Crerand CE, Phillips KA, Menard W, et al. Nonpsychiatric medical treatment of body dysmorphic disorder. Psychosomatics. 2005 Nov-Dec;46(6):549-55.Full text Abstract
100. Veale D, Boocock A, Gournay K, et al. Body dysmorphic disorder: a survey of fifty cases. Br J Psychiatry. 1996 Aug;169(2):196-201. Abstract
101. Gunstad J, Phillips KA. Axis I comorbidity in body dysmorphic disorder. Compr Psychiatry. 2003 Jul-Aug;44(4):270-6.Full text Abstract
102. Phillips KA, Stout RL. Associations in the longitudinal course of body dysmorphic disorder with major depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and social phobia. J Psychiatr Res. 2006 Jun;40(4):360-9.Full text Abstract
103. Grant JE, Menard W, Pagano ME, et al. Substance use disorders in individuals with body dysmorphic disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2005 Mar;66(3):309-16.Full text Abstract
104. Houchins JR, Kelly MM, Phillips KA. Motives for illicit drug use among individuals with body dysmorphic disorder. J Psychiatr Pract. 2019 Nov;25(6):427-36. Abstract
105. Greenberg JL, Jacobson NC, Hoeppner SS, et al. Early response to cognitive behavioral therapy for body dysmorphic disorder as a predictor of outcomes. J Psychiatr Res. 2022 Aug;152:7-13. Abstract
Use of this content is subject to our disclaimer