Evaluation of vaginal bleeding

References

Key articles

Workowski KA, Bachmann LH, Chan PA, et al. Sexually Transmitted Infections Treatment Guidelines, 2021. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2021 Jul 23;70(4):1-187.Full text  Abstract

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Ectopic pregnancy and miscarriage: diagnosis and initial management. Aug 2023 [internet publication].Full text

American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. ACOG practice bulletin no. 193: tubal ectopic pregnancy. Mar 2018 [internet publication].Full text

Reference articles

1. Söderström HF, Carlsson A, Börjesson A, et al. Vaginal bleeding in prepubertal girls: etiology and clinical management. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol. 2016 Jun;29(3):280-5. Abstract

2. Lindner LE, Geerling S, Nettum JA, et al. Clinical characteristics of women with chlamydial cervicitis. J Reprod Med. 1988 Aug;33(8):684-90. Abstract

3. Shapley M, Jordan K, Croft PR. An epidemiological survey of symptoms of menstrual loss in the community. Br J Gen Pract. 2004 May;54(502):359-63.Full text  Abstract

4. Viikki M, Pukkala E, Hakama M. Bleeding symptoms and subsequent risk of gynecological and other cancers. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 1998 May;77(5):564-9. Abstract

5. Cohen O, Schejter E, Agizim R, et al. Postcoital bleeding is a predictor for cervical dysplasia. PLoS One. 2019 May 23;14(5):e0217396.Full text  Abstract

6. Everett C. Incidence and outcome of bleeding before the 20th week of pregnancy: prospective study from general practice. BMJ. 1997 Jul 5;315(7099):32-4.Full text  Abstract

7. Hasan R, Baird DD, Herring AH, et al. Association between first-trimester vaginal bleeding and miscarriage. Obstet Gynecol. 2009 Oct;114(4):860-7.Full text  Abstract

8. Astrup K, Olivarius Nde F. Frequency of spontaneously occurring postmenopausal bleeding in the general population. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2004 Feb;83(2):203-7.Full text  Abstract

9. Puttemans P, Benagiano G, Gargett C, et al. Neonatal uterine bleeding as a biomarker for reproductive disorders during adolescence: a worldwide call for systematic registration by nurse midwife. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2017 Jun;30(12):1434-6.Full text  Abstract

10. Brosens I, Benagiano G. Is neonatal uterine bleeding involved in the pathogenesis of endometriosis as a source of stem cells? Fertil Steril. 2013 Sep;100(3):622-3.Full text  Abstract

11. Stricker T, Navratil F, Sennhauser FH. Vaginal foreign bodies. J Paediatr Child Health. 2004 Apr;40(4):205-7. Abstract

12. Dwiggins M, Gomez-Lobo V. Current review of prepubertal vaginal bleeding. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol. 2017 Oct;29(5):322-7. Abstract

13. Striegel AM, Myers JB, Sorensen MD, et al. Vaginal discharge and bleeding in girls younger than 6 years. J Urol. 2006 Dec;176(6 Pt 1):2632-5. Abstract

14. Tarney CM, Han J. Postcoital bleeding: a review on etiology, diagnosis, and management. Obstet Gynecol Int. 2014;2014:192087.Full text  Abstract

15. Workowski KA, Bachmann LH, Chan PA, et al. Sexually Transmitted Infections Treatment Guidelines, 2021. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2021 Jul 23;70(4):1-187.Full text  Abstract

16. Wilson JF. In the clinic. Vaginitis and cervicitis. Ann Intern Med. 2009 Sep 1;151(5):ITC3-1-15; quiz ITC3-16. Abstract

17. Taylor SN. Cervicitis of unknown etiology. Curr Infect Dis Rep. 2014 Jul;16(7):409. Abstract

18. International Collaboration of Epidemiological Studies of Cervical Cancer. Cervical carcinoma and sexual behavior: collaborative reanalysis of individual data on 15,461 women with cervical carcinoma and 29,164 women without cervical carcinoma from 21 epidemiological studies. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2009 Apr;18(4):1060-9.Full text  Abstract

19. Hessol NA, Whittemore H, Vittinghoff E, et al. Incidence of first and second primary cancers diagnosed among people with HIV, 1985-2013: a population-based, registry linkage study. Lancet HIV. 2018 Nov;5(11):e647-55. Abstract

20. International Collaboration of Epidemiological Studies of Cervical Cancer, Appleby P, Beral V, et al. Cervical cancer and hormonal contraceptives: collaborative reanalysis of individual data for 16,573 women with cervical cancer and 35,509 women without cervical cancer from 24 epidemiological studies. Lancet. 2007 Nov 10;370(9599):1609-21. Abstract

21. Shapley M, Jordan J, Croft PR. A systematic review of postcoital bleeding and risk of cervical cancer. Br J Gen Pract. 2006 Jun;56(527):453-60.Full text  Abstract

22. Adams TS, Cuello MA. Cancer of the vagina. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2018 Oct;143 Suppl 2:14-21.Full text  Abstract

23. Wiley DJ, Douglas J, Beutner K, et al. External genital warts: diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. Clin Infect Dis. 2002 Oct 15;35(Suppl 2):S210-24.Full text  Abstract

24. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Ectopic pregnancy and miscarriage: diagnosis and initial management. Aug 2023 [internet publication].Full text

25. Panelli DM, Phillips CH, Brady PC. Incidence, diagnosis and management of tubal and nontubal ectopic pregnancies: a review. Fertil Res Pract. 2015 Oct 15;1:15.Full text  Abstract

26. Furlong LA. Ectopic pregnancy risk when contraception fails. A review. J Reprod Med. 2002 Nov;47(11):881-5. Abstract

27. Wilcox AJ, Weinberg CR, O'Connor JF, et al. Incidence of early loss of pregnancy. N Engl J Med. 1988 Jul 28;319(4):189-94. Abstract

28. Ananth CV, Keyes KM, Hamilton A, et al. An international contrast of rates of placental abruption: an age-period-cohort analysis. PLoS One. 2015 May 27;10(5):e0125246.Full text  Abstract

29. El-Kady D, Gilbert WM, Anderson J, et al. Trauma during pregnancy: an analysis of maternal and fetal outcomes in a large population. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2004 Jun;190(6):1661-8. Abstract

30. Ananth CV, Smulian JC, Vintzileos AM. Incidence of placental abruption in relation to cigarette smoking and hypertensive disorders during pregnancy: a meta-analysis of observational studies. Obstet Gynecol. 1999 Apr;93(4):622-8. Abstract

31. Addis A, Moretti ME, Ahmed Syed F, et al. Fetal effects of cocaine: an updated meta-analysis. Reprod Toxicol. 2001 Jul-Aug;15(4):341-69. Abstract

32. Rasmussen S, Irgens LM, Dalaker K. Outcome of pregnancies subsequent to placental abruption: a risk assessment. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2000 Jun;79(6):496-501. Abstract

33. American College of Radiology. ACR appropriateness criteria: second and third trimester bleeding. 2013 [internet publication].Full text

34. Silver RM, Branch DW. Placenta accreta spectrum. N Engl J Med. 2018 Apr 19;378(16):1529-36. Abstract

35. Conde-Agudelo A, Rosas-Bermudez A, Kafury-Goeta AC. Effects of birth spacing on maternal health: a systematic review. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2007;196:297-308. Abstract

36. Clarke MA, Long BJ, Del Mar Morillo A, et al. Association of endometrial cancer risk with postmenopausal bleeding in women: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Intern Med. 2018 Sep 1;178(9):1210-22.Full text  Abstract

37. Bankhead CR, Collins C, Stokes-Lampard H, et al. Identifying symptoms of ovarian cancer: a qualitative and quantitative study. BJOG. 2008 Jul;115(8):1008-14.Full text  Abstract

38. Practice Committee of American Society for Reproductive Medicine. Medical treatment of ectopic pregnancy: a committee opinion. Fertil Steril. 2013 Sep;100(3):638-44.Full text  Abstract

39. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. ACOG practice bulletin no. 193: tubal ectopic pregnancy. Mar 2018 [internet publication].Full text

40. Elson CJ, Salim R, Potdar N, et al; Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. Diagnosis and management of ectopic pregnancy: green-top guideline no. 21. BJOG. 2016 Dec;123(13):e15-e55.Full text  Abstract

41. Lahoti SL, McClain N, Girardet R, et al. Evaluating the child for sexual abuse. Am Fam Physician. 2001 Mar 1;63(5):883-92.Full text  Abstract

42. Marshall WA, Tanner JM. Variations in pattern of pubertal changes in girls. Arch Dis Child. 1969 Jun;44(235):291-303.Full text  Abstract

43. Spitzer RF, Kives S, Caccia N, et al. Retrospective review of unintentional female genital trauma at a pediatric referral center. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2008 Dec;24(12):831-5. Abstract

44. Brander EPA, McQuillan SK. Prepubertal vulvovaginitis. CMAJ. 2018 Jul 3;190(26):E800.Full text  Abstract

45. Brook G, Church H, Evans C, et al. 2019 UK National guideline for consultations requiring sexual history taking: Clinical Effectiveness Group British Association for Sexual Health and HIV. Int J STD AIDS. 2020 Sep;31(10):920-38. Abstract

46. Evans D, Goldstein S, Loewy A, et al. No. 385-Indications for pelvic examination. J Obstet Gynaecol Can. 2019 Aug;41(8):1221-34. Abstract

47. Crochet JR, Bastian LA, Chireau MV. Does this woman have an ectopic pregnancy?: the rational clinical examination systematic review. JAMA. 2013 Apr 24;309(16):1722-9. Abstract

48. Cohen PA, Jhingran A, Oaknin A, et al. Cervical cancer. Lancet. 2019 Jan 12;393(10167):169-82. Abstract

49. Expert Panel on GYN and OB Imaging, Shipp TD, Poder L, et al. ACR Appropriateness Criteria® second and third trimester vaginal bleeding. J Am Coll Radiol. 2020 Nov;17(11S):S497-504.Full text  Abstract

50. Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. Antepartum haemorrhage (Green-top guideline No. 63). 5 Dec 2011 [internet publication].Full text

51. Wølner-Hanssen P, Krieger JN, Stevens CE, et al. Clinical manifestations of vaginal trichomoniasis. JAMA. 1989 Jan 27;261(4):571-6. Abstract

52. Paladine HL, Desai UA. Vaginitis: diagnosis and treatment. Am Fam Physician. 2018 Mar 1;97(5):321-9.Full text  Abstract

53. Oyelese Y, Ananth CV. Placental abruption. Obstet Gynecol. 2006 Oct;108(4):1005-16. Abstract

54. Expert Panel on Women’s Imaging; Brown DL, Packard A, et al. ACR Appropriateness Criteria® first trimester vaginal bleeding. J Am Coll Radiol. 2018 May;15(5S):S69-77.Full text  Abstract

55. Expert Panel on Women’s Imaging; Atri M, Alabousi A, et al ACR Appropriateness Criteria® clinically suspected adnexal mass, no acute symptoms. J Am Coll Radiol. 2019 May;16(5S):S77-93.Full text  Abstract

56. ACOG Committee Opinion No. 734: The role of transvaginal ultrasonography in evaluating the endometrium of women with postmenopausal bleeding. Obstet Gynecol. 2018 May;131(5):e124-9.Full text  Abstract

57. Oaknin A, Bosse TJ, Creutzberg CL, et al. Endometrial cancer: ESMO clinical practice guideline for diagnosis, treatment and follow-up. Ann Oncol. 2022 Sep;33(9):860-77.Full text  Abstract

58. Yudin MH, Hillier SL, Wiesenfeld HC, et al. Vaginal polymorphonuclear leukocytes and bacterial vaginosis as markers for histologic endometritis among women without symptoms of pelvic inflammatory disease. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2003 Feb;188(2):318-23. Abstract

59. Coeman D, Van Belle Y, Vanderick G, et al. Hysteroscopic findings in patients with a cervical polyp. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1993 Dec;169(6):1563-5. Abstract

60. O'Brien KL, Shainker SA, Lockhart EL. Transfusion management of obstetric hemorrhage. Transfus Med Rev. 2018 Oct;32(4):249-55. Abstract

61. Glantz C, Purnell L. Clinical utility of sonography in the diagnosis and treatment of placental abruption. J Ultrasound Med. 2002 Aug;21(8):837-40. Abstract

62. Marrazzo JM, Martin DH. Management of women with cervicitis. Clin Infect Dis. 2007 Apr 1;44 Suppl 3:S102-10. Abstract

63. Nugent RP, Krohn MA, Hillier SL. Reliability of diagnosing bacterial vaginosis is improved by a standardized method of Gram stain interpretation. J Clin Microbiol. 1991 Feb;29(2):297-301.Full text  Abstract

64. British Society for Paediatric and Adolescent Gynaecology. Genital trauma in girls. Jun 2017 [internet publication].Full text

Use of this content is subject to our disclaimer