References
Key articles
Jones KL, Smith DW. Recognition of the fetal alcohol syndrome in early infancy. Lancet. 1973 Nov 3;302(7836):999-1001. Abstract
Carson G, Cox LV, Crane J, et al.; Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada. Alcohol use and pregnancy consensus clinical guidelines. J Obstet Gynaecol Can. 2010 Aug;32(8 suppl 3):S1-31. Abstract
Astley SJ. Diagnostic guide for fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: the 4-digit diagnostic code. 3rd ed. Seattle, WA: University of Washington; 2004.Full text
Cook JL, Green CR, Lilley CM, et al. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder: a guideline for diagnosis across the lifespan. CMAJ. 2016 Feb 16;188(3):191-7.Full text Abstract
Streissguth AP, Bookstein FL, Barr HM, et al. Risk factors for adverse life outcomes in fetal alcohol syndrome and fetal alcohol effects. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2004 Aug;25(4):228-38. Abstract
Koren G, Sarkar M, Rosenbaum C, et al. The maternal drinking history guide: development of a national educational tool. J Popul Ther Clin Pharmacol. 2013;20(1):e42-3. Abstract
Sarkar M, Burnett M, Carriere S, et al. Screening and recording of alcohol use among women of child-bearing age and pregnant women. Can J Clin Pharmacol. 2009 Winter;16(1):e242-63. Abstract
Reference articles
1. Streissguth AP, O'Malley K. Neuropsychiatric implications and long-term consequences of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Semin Clin Neuropsychiatry. 2000;5:177-190. Abstract
2. World Health Organization. International classification of diseases (ICD)-11. Geneva: WHO; 2022.Full text
3. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 5th ed, text revision (DSM-5-TR). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2022.
4. Popova S, Lange S, Probst C, et al. Global prevalence of alcohol use and binge drinking during pregnancy, and fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. Biochem Cell Biol. 2018 Apr;96(2):237-40. Abstract
5. Lange S, Probst C, Gmel G, et al. Global prevalence of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder among children and youth: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatr. 2017 Oct 1;171(10):948-56. Abstract
6. May PA, Gossage JP. Estimating the prevalence of fetal alcohol syndrome. A summary. Alcohol Res Health. 2001;25(3):159-67.Full text Abstract
7. May PA, Chambers CD, Kalberg WO, et al. Prevalence of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders in 4 US communities. JAMA. 2018 Feb 6;319(5):474-82. Abstract
8. Chambers CD. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. In: Preedy V, Watson R, eds. Comprehensive handbook of alcohol related pathology. London: Elsevier; 2005:349-60.
9. Jones KL, Smith DW. Recognition of the fetal alcohol syndrome in early infancy. Lancet. 1973 Nov 3;302(7836):999-1001. Abstract
10. Jones KL, Smith DW, Ulleland CN, et al. Pattern of malformation in offspring of chronic alcoholic mothers. Lancet. 1973 Jun 9;1(7815):1267-71. Abstract
11. Jones KL. From recognition to responsibility: Josef Warkany, David Smith, and the fetal alcohol syndrome in the 21st century. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol. 2003 Jan;67(1):13-20. Abstract
12. Lemoine P, Harousseau H, Borteyru JP, et al. Children of alcoholic parents - observed anomalies: discussion of 127 cases. Ther Drug Monit. 2003 Apr;25(2):132-6. Abstract
13. Coles C. Critical periods for prenatal alcohol exposure. Alcohol Health Res World. 1994;18:22-9.
14. Pearson MA, Hoyme HE, Seaver LH, et al. Toluene embryopathy: delineation of the phenotype and comparison with fetal alcohol syndrome. Pediatrics. 1994 Feb;93(2):211-5. Abstract
15. May PA, Gossage JP, Brooke LE, et al. Maternal risk factors for fetal alcohol syndrome in the Western cape province of South Africa: a population-based study. Am J Public Health. 2005 Jul;95(7):1190-9. Abstract
16. Guerri C. Neuroanatomical and neurophysiological mechanisms involved in central nervous system dysfunctions induced by prenatal alcohol exposure. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 1998 Apr;22(2):304-12. Abstract
17. Burd L, Roberts D, Olson M, et al. Ethanol and the placenta: a review. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2007 May;20(5):361-75. Abstract
18. May PA, Gossage JP, Marais AS, et al. Maternal risk factors for fetal alcohol syndrome and partial fetal alcohol syndrome in South Africa: a third study. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2008 May;32(5):738-53. Abstract
19. Green RF, Stoler JM. Alcohol dehydrogenase 1B genotype and fetal alcohol syndrome: a HuGE minireview. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2007 Jul;197(1):12-25. Abstract
20. Jacobson JL, Jacobson SW, Sokol RJ, et al. Relation of maternal age and pattern of pregnancy drinking to functionally significant cognitive deficit in infancy. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 1998 Apr;22(2):345-51. Abstract
21. Urban M, Chersich MF, Fourie LA, et al. Fetal alcohol syndrome among grade-one schoolchildren in Northern Cape Province: prevalence and risk factors. S Afr Med J. 2008 Nov;98(11):877-82.Full text Abstract
22. Prevention of fetal alcohol syndrome. In: Stratton K, Howe C, Battaglia F, eds. Fetal alcohol syndrome: diagnosis, epidemiology, prevention, and treatment. Washington DC: Institute of Medicine, National Academies Press, 1996:112-53.
23. Elliott EJ, Bower C. FAS in Australia: fact or fiction? J Paediatr Child Health. 2004 Jan-Feb;40(1-2):8-10. Abstract
24. O'Leary CM, Heuzenroeder L, Elliott EJ, et al. A review of policies on alcohol use during pregnancy in Australia and other English-speaking countries 2006. Med J Aust. 2007 May 7;186(9):466-71. Abstract
25. National Health and Medical Research Council. Australian guidelines to reduce health risks from drinking alcohol. February 2009 [internet publication].
26. Department of Health. UK chief medical officers’ low risk drinking guidelines. August 2016 [internet publication].Full text
27. Stade BC, Bailey C, Dzendoletas D, et al. Psychological and/or educational interventions for reducing alcohol consumption in pregnant women and women planning pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009;(2):CD004228. Abstract
28. Montag A, Clapp JD, Calac D, et al. A review of evidence-based approaches for reduction of alcohol consumption in Native women who are pregnant or of reproductive age. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2012 Sep;38(5):436-43. Abstract
29. Carson G, Cox LV, Crane J, et al.; Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada. Alcohol use and pregnancy consensus clinical guidelines. J Obstet Gynaecol Can. 2010 Aug;32(8 suppl 3):S1-31. Abstract
30. Alcohol and Pregnancy Project. Alcohol and pregnancy and fetal alcohol spectrum disorder: a resource for health professionals (1st revision). Perth: Telethon Institute for Child Health Research; 2009.Full text
31. Ingersoll KS, Ceperich SD, Hettema JE, et al. Preconceptional motivational interviewing interventions to reduce alcohol-exposed pregnancy risk. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2013 Apr;44(4):407-16.Full text Abstract
32. Wilton G, Moberg DP, Van Stelle KR, et al. A randomized trial comparing telephone versus in-person brief intervention to reduce the risk of an alcohol-exposed pregnancy. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2013 Nov-Dec;45(5):389-94.Full text Abstract
33. Diagnosis and clinical evaluation of fetal alcohol syndrome. In: Stratton K, Howe C, Battaglia F, eds. Fetal alcohol syndrome: diagnosis, epidemiology, prevention, and treatment. Washington DC: Institute of Medicine, National Academy Press; 1996:63-81.
34. Astley SJ. Diagnostic guide for fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: the 4-digit diagnostic code. 3rd ed. Seattle, WA: University of Washington; 2004.Full text
35. National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities. Fetal alcohol syndrome: guidelines for referral and diagnosis. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2004.Full text
36. Cook JL, Green CR, Lilley CM, et al. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder: a guideline for diagnosis across the lifespan. CMAJ. 2016 Feb 16;188(3):191-7.Full text Abstract
37. Hoyme HE, May PA, Kalberg WO, et al. A practical clinical approach to diagnosis of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: clarification of the 1996 institute of medicine criteria. Pediatrics. 2005 Jan;115(1):39-47.Full text Abstract
38. Hoyme HE, Kalberg WO, Elliott AJ, et al. Updated clinical guidelines for diagnosing fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Pediatrics. 2016 Aug;138(2):e20154256.Full text Abstract
39. Russell E. Alcohol and pregnancy: a mother's responsible disturbance. Mermaid Waters, Qld: Zeus Publications; 2005.
40. Streissguth AP, Bookstein FL, Barr HM, et al. Risk factors for adverse life outcomes in fetal alcohol syndrome and fetal alcohol effects. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2004 Aug;25(4):228-38. Abstract
41. Elliott EJ, Payne J, Morris A, et al. Fetal alcohol syndrome: a prospective national surveillance study. Arch Dis Child. 2008 Sep;93(9):732-7. Abstract
42. Stoler JM, Holmes LB. Recognition of facial features of fetal alcohol syndrome in the newborn. Am J Med Genet C Semin Med Genet. 2004 May 15;127C(1):21-7. Abstract
43. Chudley AE, Kilgour AR, Cranston M, et al. Challenges of diagnosis in fetal alcohol syndrome and fetal alcohol spectrum disorder in the adult. Am J Med Genet C Semin Med Genet. 2007 Aug 15;145C(3):261-72. Abstract
44. Peadon E, Fremantle E, Bower C, et al. International survey of diagnostic services for children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. BMC Pediatr. 2008 Apr 15;8:12.Full text Abstract
45. Olson HC, Jirikowic T. Psychometric and behavior observations training guide. Seattle, WA: Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Diagnostic and Prevention Network; 2005.
46. Aragón AS, Coriale G, Fiorentino D, et al. Neuropsychological characteristics of Italian children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2008 Nov;32(11):1909-19. Abstract
47. Bower C, Elliott EJ. Report to the Australian Government Department of Health: Australian guide to the diagnosis of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD). Feb 2020 [internet publication].Full text
48. Astley SJ, Stachowiak J, Clarren SK, et al. Application of the fetal alcohol syndrome facial photographic screening tool in a foster care population. J Pediatr. 2002 Nov;141(5):712-7. Abstract
49. Muggli E, Matthews H, Penington A, et al. Association between prenatal alcohol exposure and craniofacial shape of children at 12 months of age. JAMA Pediatr. 2017 Aug 1;171(8):771-80. Abstract
50. Lussier AA, Weinberg J, Kobor MS. Epigenetics studies of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder: where are we now? Epigenomics. 2017 Mar;9(3):291-311.Full text Abstract
51. Elliott EJ, Payne J, Haan E, et al. Diagnosis of foetal alcohol syndrome and alcohol use in pregnancy: A survey of paediatricians' knowledge, attitudes and practice. J Paediatr Child Health. 2006 Nov;42(11):698-703. Abstract
52. Payne J, Elliott E, D'Antoine H, et al. Health professionals' knowledge, practice and opinions about fetal alcohol syndrome and alcohol consumption in pregnancy. Aus N Z J Public Health. 2005 Dec;29(6):558-64. Abstract
53. Grobbelaar R, Douglas TS. Stereo image matching for facial feature measurement to aid in fetal alcohol syndrome screening. Med Eng Phys. 2007 May;29(4):459-64. Abstract
54. Astley SJ, Aylward EH, Olson HC, et al. Functional magnetic resonance imaging outcomes from a comprehensive magnetic resonance study of children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. J Neurodev Disord. 2009 Mar;1(1):61-80. Abstract
55. Astley SJ, Richards T, Aylward EH, et al. Magnetic resonance spectroscopy outcomes from a comprehensive magnetic resonance study of children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Magn Reson Imaging. 2009 Jul;27(6):760-78. Abstract
56. Jones KL. Smith's recognizable patterns of human malformation. 5th ed. Sydney, NSW: WB Saunders; 1997.
57. Williams Syndrome Association. What is Williams syndrome? http://www.williams-syndrome.org/what-is-williams-syndrome (last accessed 28 December 2016).Full text
58. Astley SJ, Clarren SK. Diagnosing the full spectrum of fetal alcohol-exposed individuals: introducing the 4-digit diagnostic code. Alcohol Alcohol. 2000 Jul-Aug;35(4):400-10.Full text Abstract
59. Chudley AE, Conry J, Cook JL, et al. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder: Canadian guidelines for diagnosis. CMAJ. 2005 Mar 1;172(suppl 5):S1-S21.Full text Abstract
60. Muggli E, O'Leary C, Donath S, et al. "Did you ever drink more?" A detailed description of pregnant women's drinking patterns. BMC Public Health. 2016 Aug 2;16:683.Full text Abstract
61. McCormack C, Hutchinson D, Burns L, et al. Prenatal alcohol consumption between conception and recognition of pregnancy. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2017 Feb;41(2):369-78. Abstract
62. Alcohol Policy Team, Department of Health. How to keep health risks from drinking alcohol to a low level. August 2016 [internet publication].Full text
63. Koren G, Sarkar M, Rosenbaum C, et al. The maternal drinking history guide: development of a national educational tool. J Popul Ther Clin Pharmacol. 2013;20(1):e42-3. Abstract
64. Sarkar M, Burnett M, Carriere S, et al. Screening and recording of alcohol use among women of child-bearing age and pregnant women. Can J Clin Pharmacol. 2009 Winter;16(1):e242-63. Abstract
65. Goh YI, Chudley AE, Clarren SK, et al. Development of Canadian screening tools for fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. Can J Clin Pharmacol. 2008 Summer;15(2):e344-66. Abstract
66. Kulaga V, Pragst F, Fulga N, et al. Hair analysis of fatty acid ethyl esters in the detection of excessive drinking in the context of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Ther Drug Monit 2009 Apr;31(2):261-6. Abstract
67. Poitra BA, Marion S, Dionne M, et al. A school-based screening program for fetal alcohol syndrome. Neurotoxicol Teratol. 2003 Nov-Dec;25(6):725-9. Abstract
68. Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network (SIGN). Children and young people exposed prenatally to alcohol: a national clinical guideline. Jan 2019 [internet publication].Full text
69. Williams JF, Smith VC, COMMITTEE ON SUBSTANCE ABUSE. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Pediatrics. 2015 Nov;136(5):e1395-406.Full text Abstract
70. Peadon E, Rhys-Jones B, Bower C, et al. Systematic review of interventions for children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. BMC Pediatr. 2009 May 25;9:35. Abstract
71. Ordenewitz LK, Weinmann T, Schlüter JA, et al. Evidence-based interventions for children and adolescents with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders - a systematic review. Eur J Paediatr Neurol. 2021 Jul;33:50-60. Abstract
72. Riley EP, Mattson SN, Li TK, et al. Neurobehavioral consequences of prenatal alcohol exposure: an international perspective. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2003 Feb;27(2):362-73. Abstract
73. Adnams CM, Sorour P, Kalberg WO, et al. Language and literacy outcomes from a pilot intervention study for children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders in South Africa. Alcohol. 2007 Sep;41(6):403-14. Abstract
74. Stromland K, Mattson SN, Adnams CM, et al. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: an international perspective. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2005;29:1121-1126.
75. Coles CD, Kable JA, Taddeo E. Math performance and behavior problems in children affected by prenatal alcohol exposure: intervention and follow-up. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2009 Feb;30(1):7-15. Abstract
76. Kable JA, Coles CD, Taddeo E. Socio-cognitive habilitation using the math interactive learning experience program for alcohol-affected children. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2007 Aug;31(8):1425-34. Abstract
77. Coles CD, Strickland DC, Padgett L, et al. Games that "work": using computer games to teach alcohol-affected children about fire and street safety. Res Dev Disabil. 2007 Oct-Nov;28(5):518-30. Abstract
78. Wells AM, Chasnoff IJ, Schmidt CA, et al. Neurocognitive habilitation therapy for children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: an adaptation of the Alert Program®. Am J Occup Ther. 2012 Jan-Feb;66(1):24-34.Full text Abstract
79. O'Connor MJ, Frankel F, Paley B, et al. A controlled social skills training for children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2006 Aug;74(4):639-48 (Erratum in: J Consult Clin Psychol. 2007 Feb;75(1):71). Abstract
80. Bertrand J. Interventions for children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs): overview of findings for five innovative research projects. Res Dev Disabil. 2009 Sep-Oct;30(5):986-1006. Abstract
81. Vernescu R. Attention process training in young children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. 2nd International Conference on Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders; Victoria, BC: 2007.
82. Peadon E, Elliott EJ. Distinguishing between attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and fetal alcohol spectrum disorders in children: clinical guidelines. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2010 Sep 7;6:509-15. Abstract
83. Snyder J, Nanson J, Snyder R, et al. A study of stimulant medication in children with FAS. In: Streissguth A, Kanter J, eds. Overcoming and preventing secondary disabilities in fetal alcohol syndrome and fetal alcohol effects. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press; 1997:64-77.
84. Oesterheld JR, Kofoed L, Tervo R, et al. Effectiveness of methylphenidate in native American children with fetal alcohol syndrome and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a controlled pilot study. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 1998;8(1):39-48. Abstract
85. O'Malley KD, Nanson J. Clinical implications of a link between fetal alcohol spectrum disorder and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Can J Psychiatry. 2002 May;47(4):349-54. Abstract
86. American Academy of Pediatrics. Pharmacologic interventions in fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Oct 2021 [internet publication].Full text
87. Akison LK, Kuo J, Reid N, et al. Effect of choline supplementation on neurological, cognitive, and behavioral outcomes in offspring arising from alcohol exposure during development: a quantitative systematic review of clinical and preclinical studies. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2018 Sep;42(9):1591-611. Abstract
88. Spohr HL, Willms J, Steinhausen HC. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders in young adulthood. J Pediatr. 2007;150:175-179. Abstract
89. Rangmar J, Hjern A, Vinnerljung B, et al. Psychosocial outcomes of fetal alcohol syndrome in adulthood. Pediatrics. 2015;135:e52-e58.Full text Abstract
90. Autti-Rämö I, Fagerlund A, Ervalahti N, et al. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders in Finland: clinical delineation of 77 older children and adolescents. Am J Med Genet A. 2006;140:137-143. Abstract
91. Famy C, Streissguth AP, Unis AS. Mental illness in adults with fetal alcohol syndrome or fetal alcohol effects. Am J Psychiatry. 1998;155:552-554. Abstract
92. Alati R, Al Mamun A, Williams GM, et al. In utero alcohol exposure and prediction of alcohol disorders in early adulthood: a birth cohort study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2006;63:1009-1016.Full text Abstract
93. Baer JS, Sampson PD, Barr HM, et al. A 21-year longitudinal analysis of the effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on young adult drinking. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2003;60:377-385.Full text Abstract
94. Kerns KA, Don A, Mateer CA, et al. Cognitive deficits in nonretarded adults with fetal alcohol syndrome. J Learn Disabil. 1997;30:685-693. Abstract
95. Smith EJ, Lui S, Terplan M. Pharmacologic interventions for pregnant women enrolled in alcohol treatment. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009;(3):CD007361. Abstract
96. Lui S, Terplan M, Smith EJ. Psychosocial interventions for women enrolled in alcohol treatment during pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008;(3):CD006753. Abstract
Use of this content is subject to our disclaimer