Post-exposure HIV prophylaxis

British Association for Sexual Health and HIV. UK guideline for the use of HIV post-exposure prophylaxis. 2021 [internet publication].Full text

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; US Department of Health and Human Services. Updated guidelines for antiretroviral postexposure prophylaxis after sexual, injection drug use, or other nonoccupational exposure to HIV - United States, 2016. May 2018 [internet publication].Full text

World Health Organization. Consolidated guidelines on the use of antiretroviral drugs for treating and preventing HIV infection: recommendations for a public health approach, 2nd ed. 2016 [internet publication].Full text

New York State Department of Health AIDS Institute. PEP to prevent HIV infection. Aug 2023 [internet publication].Full text

World Health Organization. Updated recommendations on first-line and second-line antiretroviral regimens and post-exposure prophylaxis and recommendations on early infant diagnosis of HIV. Jan 2018 [internet publication].Full text

1. Pinto LA, Landay AL, Berzofsky JA, et al. Immune response to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in healthcare workers occupationally exposed to HIV-contaminated blood. Am J Med. 1997 May 19;102(5B):21-4. Abstract

2. Spira AI, Marx PA, Patterson BK, et al. Cellular targets of infection and route of viral dissemination after an intravaginal inoculation of simian immunodeficiency virus into rhesus macaques. J Exp Med. 1996 Jan 1;183(1):215-25.Full text  Abstract

3. British Association for Sexual Health and HIV. UK guideline for the use of HIV post-exposure prophylaxis. 2021 [internet publication].Full text

4. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; US Department of Health and Human Services. Updated guidelines for antiretroviral postexposure prophylaxis after sexual, injection drug use, or other nonoccupational exposure to HIV - United States, 2016. May 2018 [internet publication].Full text

5. Department of Health. HIV post-exposure prophylaxis: guidance from the UK Chief Medical Officers' Expert Advisory Group on AIDS. Sep 2008 [internet publication].Full text

6. UK Health Security Agency. Bloodborne viruses: eye of the needle. Dec 2021 [internet publication].Full text

7. Minas B, Laing S, Jordan H, et al. Improved awareness and appropriate use of non-occupational post-exposure prophylaxis (nPEP) for HIV prevention following a multi-modal communication strategy. BMC Public Health. 2012 Oct 25;12:906.Full text  Abstract

8. Draughon JE, Sheridan DJ. Nonoccupational postexposure prophylaxis for human immunodeficiency virus in Sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review. J Forensic Nurs. 2011 Jun;7(2):89-96. Abstract

9. Arend E, Maw A, de Swardt C, et al. South African sexual assault survivors' experiences of post-exposure prophylaxis and individualized nursing care: a qualitative study. J Assoc Nurses AIDS Care. 2013 Mar-Apr;24(2):154-65. Abstract

10. John SA, Quinn KG, Pleuhs B, et al. HIV post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) awareness and non-occupational PEP (nPEP) prescribing history among US healthcare providers. AIDS Behav. 2020 Nov;24(11):3124-31.Full text  Abstract

11. Fernández-Balbuena S, Belza M, Castilla J, et al. Awareness and use of nonoccupational HIV post-exposure prophylaxis among people receiving rapid HIV testing in Spain. HIV Med. 2013 Apr;14(4):252-7. Abstract

12. Hugo JM, Stall RD, Rebe K, et al. Knowledge, attitudes and beliefs regarding post exposure prophylaxis among South African men who have sex with men. AIDS Behav. 2016 Dec;20(suppl 3):350-6. Abstract

13. Ajayi AI, Ismail KO, Adeniyi OV, et al. Awareness and use of pre-exposure and postexposure prophylaxes among Nigerian university students: findings from a cross-sectional survey. Medicine (Baltimore). 2018 Sep;97(36):e12226.Full text  Abstract

14. Donegan E, Stuart M, Niland JC, et al. Infection with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) among recipients of antibody-positive blood donations. Ann Intern Med. 2013 Mar-Apr;24(2):154-65. Abstract

15. Mastro TD, de Vincenzi I. Probabilities of sexual HIV-1 transmission. AIDS. 1996;10 Suppl A:S75-82. Abstract

16. Royce RA, Sena A, Cates W Jr., et al. Sexual transmission of HIV. N Engl J Med. 1997 Apr 10;336(15):1072-8. Abstract

17. de Vincenzi I. A longitudinal study of human immunodeficiency virus transmission by heterosexual partners. N Engl J Med. 1994 Aug 11;331(6):341-6.Full text  Abstract

18. Anderson RM, May RM. Epidemiological parameters of HIV transmission. Nature. 1988 Jun 9;333(6173):514-9. Abstract

19. Gray R, Wawer MJ, Brookmeyer R, et al. Probability of HIV-1 transmission per coital act in monogamous, heterosexual, HIV-1-discordant couples in Rakai, Uganda. Lancet. 2001 Apr 14;357(9263):1149-53. Abstract

20. Leynaert B, Downs AM, de Vincenzi I; European Study Group on Heterosexual Transmission of HIV. Heterosexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus: variability of infectivity throughout the course of infection. Am J Epidemiol. 1998 Jul 1;148(1):88-96.Full text  Abstract

21. Overbaugh J, Sagar M, Benki S, et al. Viral and host factors in HIV-1 transmission and pathogenesis. Program and abstracts of the 9th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, February 24-28, 2002. Seattle, Washington, DC (abstr. S23).

22. Vittinghoff E, Douglas J, Judson F, et al. Per-contact risk of human immunodeficiency virus transmission between male sexual partners. Am J Epidemiol. 1999 Aug 1;150(3):306-11.Full text  Abstract

23. Kaplan EH, Heimer R. A model-based estimate of HIV infectivity via needle sharing. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 1992;5(11):1116-8. Abstract

24. Ippolito G, Puro V, De Carli G, et al. The risk of occupational human immunodeficiency virus infection in health care workers. Arch Intern Med. 1993 Jun 28;153(12):1451-8. Abstract

25. Fleming DT, Wasserheit JN. From epidemiological synergy to public health policy and practice: the contribution of other sexually transmitted diseases to sexual transmission of HIV infection. Sex Transm Infect. 1999 Feb;75(1):3-17.Full text  Abstract

26. Cardo DM, Culver DH, Ciesielski CA, et al. A case-control study of HIV seroconversion in health care workers after percutaneous exposure. N Engl J Med. 1997 Nov 20;337(21):1485-90.Full text  Abstract

27. Otten RA, Smith DK, Adams DR, et al. Efficacy of postexposure prophylaxis after intravaginal exposure of pig-tailed macaques to a human-derived retrovirus (human immunodeficiency virus type 2). J Virol. 2000 Oct;74(20):9771-5.Full text  Abstract

28. Tsai CC, Emau P, Follis KE, et al. Effectiveness of postinoculation (R)-9-(2-phosphonylmethoxypropyl) adenine treatment for prevention of persistent simian immunodeficiency virus SIVmne infection depends critically on timing of initiation and duration of treatment. J Virol. 1998 May;72(5):4265-73.Full text  Abstract

29. Schechter M, do Lago RF, Mendelsohn AB, et al. Behavioral impact, acceptability, and HIV incidence among homosexual men with access to postexposure chemoprophylaxis for HIV. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2004 Apr 15;35(5):519-25. Abstract

30. Drezett J. Post-exposure prophylaxis in raped women. In: IV International Conference on HIV Infection in Women and Children. Rio de Janeiro: Livro de Resumos. Universidade, Federal do Rio De Janeiro e Institute of Virology of Maryland; 2002.

31. Cardo DM, Culver DH, Ciesielski CA, et al. A case-control study of HIV seroconversion in health care workers after percutaneous exposure. N Engl J Med. 1997 Nov 20;337(21):1485-90.Full text  Abstract

32. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Case-control study of HIV seroconversion in health-care workers after percutaneous exposure to HIV-infected blood - France, United Kingdom, and United States, January 1988-August 1994. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1995 Dec 22;44(50):929-33.Full text  Abstract

33. Bell DM. Occupational risk of human immunodeficiency virus infection in health care workers: an overview. Am J Med. 1997 May 19;102(5B):9-15. Abstract

34. Ganczak M, Barss P, Ganczak M, et al. Nosocomial HIV infection: epidemiology and prevention - a global perspective. AIDS Rev. 2008 Jan-Mar;10(1):47-61. Abstract

35. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Health Resources and Services Administration, National Institutes of Health, et al. Recommendations for HIV prevention with adults and adolescents with HIV in the United States, 2014. Dec 2014 [internet publication].Full text

36. Donnell D, Mimiaga MJ, Mayer K, et al. Use of non-occupational post-exposure prophylaxis does not lead to an increase in high risk sex behaviors in men who have sex with men participating in the EXPLORE trial. AIDS Behav. 2010 Oct;14(5):1182-9.Full text  Abstract

37. Figueroa JP, Brathwaite A, Morris J, et al. Rising HIV-1 prevalence among sexually transmitted disease clinic attenders in Jamaica: traumatic sex and genital ulcers as risk factors. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 1994 Mar;7(3):310-6. Abstract

38. Cresswell FV, Ellis J, Hartley J, et al. A systematic review of risk of HIV transmission through biting or spitting: implications for policy. HIV Med. 2018 Apr 23;19(8):532-40.Full text  Abstract

39. Landovitz RJ, Fletcher JB, Inzhakova G, et al. A novel combination HIV prevention strategy: post-exposure prophylaxis with contingency management for substance abuse treatment among methamphetamine-using men who have sex with men. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2012 Jun;26(6):320-8. Abstract

40. Heuker J, Sonder GJ, Stolte I, et al. High HIV incidence among MSM prescribed postexposure prophylaxis, 2000-2009: indications for ongoing sexual risk behaviour. AIDS. 2012 Feb 20;26(4):505-12. Abstract

41. Llewellyn C, Abraham C, Miners A, et al. Multicentre RCT and economic evaluation of a psychological intervention together with a leaflet to reduce risk behaviour amongst men who have sex with men (MSM) prescribed post-exposure prophylaxis for HIV following sexual exposure (PEPSE): a protocol. BMC Infect Dis. 2012 Mar 22;12:70.Full text  Abstract

42. Jain S, Krakower DS, Mayer KH. The transition from postexposure prophylaxis to preexposure prophylaxis: an emerging opportunity for biobehavioral HIV prevention. Clin Infect Dis. 2015 Jun 1;60 Suppl 3:S200-4.Full text  Abstract

43. Grant RM, Smith DK. Integrating antiretroviral strategies for human immunodeficiency virus prevention: post- and pre-exposure prophylaxis and early treatment. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2015 Aug 26;2(4):ofv126.Full text  Abstract

44. Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, et al. Antiretroviral therapy for the prevention of HIV-1 transmission. N Engl J Med. 2016 Sep 1;375(9):830-9.Full text  Abstract

45. Rodger AJ, Cambiano V, Bruun T, et al. Risk of HIV transmission through condomless sex in serodifferent gay couples with the HIV-positive partner taking suppressive antiretroviral therapy (PARTNER): final results of a multicentre, prospective, observational study. Lancet. 2019 Jun 15;393(10189):2428-38.Full text  Abstract

46. World Health Organization. Consolidated guidelines on the use of antiretroviral drugs for treating and preventing HIV infection: recommendations for a public health approach, 2nd ed. 2016 [internet publication].Full text

47. Australasian Society for HIV, Viral Hepatitis and Sexual Health Medicine. Post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP). 2016 [internet publication].Full text

48. Palfreeman A, Sullivan A, Rayment M, et al. British HIV Association/British Association for Sexual Health and HIV/British Infection Association adult HIV testing guidelines 2020. HIV Med. 2020 Dec;21 Suppl 6:1-26.Full text  Abstract

49. New York State Department of Health AIDS Institute. PEP to prevent HIV infection. Aug 2023 [internet publication].Full text

50. Merck Frosst Canada Ltd. Isentress (raltegravir) prescribing information. Jan 2015 [internet publication].Full text

51. ViiV Healthcare ULC. Tivicay (dolutegravir) prescribing information. Feb 2014 [internet publication].Full text

52. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. British national formulary. May 2022 [internet publication].Full text

53. Corey L. Wald A, Celum CL, et al. The effects of herpes simplex virus-2 on HIV-1 acquisition and transmission: a review of two overlapping epidemics. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2004 Apr 15;35(5):435-45. Abstract

54. Landovitz RJ, Currier JS. Clinical practice. Postexposure prophylaxis for HIV infection. 2009 Oct 29;361(18):1768-75. Abstract

55. Mindel A, Tenant-Flowers M. ABC of AIDS: Natural history and management of early HIV infection. BMJ. 2001 May 26;322(7297):1290-3.Full text  Abstract

56. Greenwald JL, Burstein GR, Pincus J, et al. A rapid review of rapid HIV antibody tests. Curr Infect Dis Rep. 2006 Mar;8(2):125-31. Abstract

57. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; US Department of Health and Human Services. Updated U.S. Public Health Service guidelines for the management of occupational exposures to HIV and recommendations for postexposure prophylaxis. May 2018 [internet publication].Full text

58. World Health Organization. Updated recommendations on first-line and second-line antiretroviral regimens and post-exposure prophylaxis and recommendations on early infant diagnosis of HIV. Jan 2018 [internet publication].Full text

59. Mayer KH, Mimiaga MJ, Gelman M, et al. Raltegravir, tenofovir DF, and emtricitabine for postexposure prophylaxis to prevent the sexual transmission of HIV: safety, tolerability, and adherence. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2012 Apr 1;59(4):354-9. Abstract

60. Quah SP, McIntyre M, Wood A, et al. Once-daily raltegravir with tenofovir disoproxil/emtricitabine as HIV post-exposure prophylaxis following sexual exposure. HIV Med. 2021 Feb;22(2):e5-6. Abstract

61. Ford N, Irvine C, Shubber Z, et al. Adherence to HIV postexposure prophylaxis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. AIDS. 2014 Nov 28;28(18):2721-7. Abstract

62. Blashill AJ, Ehlinger PP, Mayer KH, et al. Optimizing adherence to preexposure and postexposure prophylaxis: the need for an integrated biobehavioral approach. Clin Infect Dis. 2015 Jun 1;60 Suppl 3:S187-90.Full text  Abstract

63. Tan DHS, Hull MW, Yoong D, et al. Canadian guideline on HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis and nonoccupational postexposure prophylaxis. CMAJ. 2017 Nov 27;189(47):E1448-58Full text  Abstract

64. Clutterbuck D, Asboe D, Barber T, et al. 2016 United Kingdom national guideline on the sexual health care of men who have sex with men. Int J STD AIDS. 2018 Jan 1:956462417746897. Abstract

65. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021: sexual assault and abuse and STIs - adolescents and adults. Jul 2021 [internet publication].Full text