HIV-related opportunistic infections

National Institutes of Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, HIV Medicine Association, and Infectious Diseases Society of America. Panel on Guidelines for the Prevention and Treatment of Opportunistic Infections in Adults and Adolescents with HIV. Guidelines for the prevention and treatment of opportunistic infections in adults and adolescents with HIV. 2022 [internet publication].Full text

National Institutes of Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, HIV Medicine Association, and Infectious Diseases Society of America. Panel on Guidelines for the Prevention and Treatment of Opportunistic Infections in Adults and Adolescents with HIV. Guidelines for the prevention and treatment of opportunistic infections in adults and adolescents with HIV. 2022 [internet publication].Full text

National Institutes of Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, HIV Medicine Association, and Infectious Diseases Society of America. Panel on Guidelines for the Prevention and Treatment of Opportunistic Infections in Adults and Adolescents with HIV. Guidelines for the prevention and treatment of opportunistic infections in adults and adolescents with HIV. 2022 [internet publication].Full text

World Health Organization. Guidelines for diagnosing, preventing and managing cryptococcal disease among adults, adolescents and children living with HIV. Jun 2022 [internet publication].Full text

Griffith DE, Aksamit T, Brown-Elliott BA, et al. An official ATS/IDSA statement: diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of nontuberculous mycobacterial diseases. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2007 Feb 15;175(4):367-416.Full text  Abstract

Perfect JR, Dismukes WE, Dromer F, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the management of cryptococcal disease: 2010 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2010 Feb 1;50(3):291-322.Full text  Abstract

Pappas PG, Kauffman CA, Andes DR, et al. Clinical practice guideline for the management of candidiasis: 2016 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2016 Feb 15;62(4):e1-50.Full text  Abstract

1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1993 revised classification system for HIV infection and expanded surveillance case definition for AIDS among adolescents and adults. MMWR Recomm Rep. 1992 Dec 18;41(RR-17):1-19.Full text  Abstract

2. National Institutes of Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, HIV Medicine Association, and Infectious Diseases Society of America. Panel on Guidelines for the Prevention and Treatment of Opportunistic Infections in Adults and Adolescents with HIV. Guidelines for the prevention and treatment of opportunistic infections in adults and adolescents with HIV. 2022 [internet publication].Full text

3. National Institutes of Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, HIV Medicine Association, and Infectious Diseases Society of America. Panel on Guidelines for the Prevention and Treatment of Opportunistic Infections in Adults and Adolescents with HIV. Guidelines for the prevention and treatment of opportunistic infections in adults and adolescents with HIV. 2022 [internet publication].Full text

4. Jones BE, Young SM, Antoniskis D, et al. Relationship of the manifestations of tuberculosis to CD4 cell counts in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1993 Nov;148(5):1292-7. Abstract

5. Breen RA, Smith CJ, Cropley I, et al. Does immune reconstitution syndrome promote active tuberculosis in patients receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy? AIDS. 2005 Jul 22;19(11):1201-6. Abstract

6. B-Lajoie MR, Drouin O, Bartlett G, et al. Incidence and prevalence of opportunistic and other infections and the impact of antiretroviral therapy among HIV-infected children in low- and middle-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 2016 Jun 15;62(12):1586-94.Full text  Abstract

7. Low A, Gavriilidis G, Larke N, et al. Incidence of opportunistic infections and the impact of antiretroviral therapy among HIV-infected adults in low- and middle-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 2016 Jun 15;62(12):1595-603.Full text  Abstract

8. Hanna DB, Gupta LS, Jones LE, et al. AIDS-defining opportunistic illnesses in the HAART era in New York City. AIDS Care. 2007 Feb;19(2):264-72. Abstract

9. Lewden C, Salmon D, Morlat P, et al. Mortality 2000 study group. Causes of death among human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected adults in the era of potent antiretroviral therapy: emerging role of hepatitis and cancers, persistent role of AIDS. Int J Epidemiol. 2005 Feb;34(1):121-30.Full text  Abstract

10. Bonnet F, Lewden C, May T, et al. Mortalite 2000 Study Group. Opportunistic infections as causes of death in HIV-infected patients in the HAART era in France. Scand J Infect Dis. 2005;37(6-7):482-7. Abstract

11. National Institutes of Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, HIV Medicine Association, and Infectious Diseases Society of America. Panel on Guidelines for the Prevention and Treatment of Opportunistic Infections in Adults and Adolescents with HIV. Guidelines for the prevention and treatment of opportunistic infections in adults and adolescents with HIV. 2022 [internet publication].Full text

12. GBD 2019 Tuberculosis Collaborators. Global, regional, and national sex differences in the global burden of tuberculosis by HIV status, 1990-2019: results from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. Lancet Infect Dis. 2022 Feb;22(2):222-41.Full text  Abstract

13. Edwards D, Kirkpatrick CH. The immunology of mycobacterial diseases. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1986 Nov;134(5):1062-71. Abstract

14. Wolinsky E. Mycobacterial diseases other than tuberculosis. Clin Infect Dis. 1992 Jul;15(1):1-10. Abstract

15. Drew WL. Diagnosis of cytomegalovirus infection. Rev Infect Dis. 1988 Jul-Aug;10(suppl 3):S468-76. Abstract

16. Stringer JR, Beard CB, Miller RF, et al. A new name (Pneumocystis jiroveci) for Pneumocystis from humans. Emerg Infect Dis. 2002 Sep;8(9):891-6.Full text  Abstract

17. Montoya JG, Liesenfeld O. Toxoplasmosis. Lancet. 2004 Jun 12;363(9425):1965-76. Abstract

18. Luft BJ, Chua A. Central nervous system toxoplasmosis in HIV pathogenesis, diagnosis, and therapy. Curr Infect Dis Rep. 2000 Aug;2(4):358-62. Abstract

19. Nosanchuk JD, Shoham S, Fries BC, et al. Evidence of zoonotic transmission of Cryptococcus neoformans from a pet cockatoo to an immunocompromised patient. Ann Intern Med. 2000 Feb 1;132(3):205-8. Abstract

20. Sorvillo F, Beall G, Turner PA, et al. Incidence and factors associated with extrapulmonary cryptococcosis among persons with HIV infection in Los Angeles County. AIDS. 1997 Apr;11(5):673-9. Abstract

21. Hellerstein MK, McCune JM. T cell turnover in HIV-1 disease. Immunity. 1997 Nov;7(5):583-9.Full text  Abstract

22. Liu X, Liu H, Guo Z, et al. Association of asymptomatic oral candidal carriage, oral candidiasis and CD4 lymphocyte count in HIV-positive patients in China. Oral Dis. 2006 Jan;12(1):41-4. Abstract

23. Gottfredsson M, Cox GM, Indridason OS, et al. Association of plasma levels of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 RNA and oropharyngeal Candida colonization. J Infect Dis. 1999 Aug;180(2):534-7.Full text  Abstract

24. Yeh CK, Fox PC, Ship JA, et al. Oral defense mechanisms are impaired early in HIV-1 infected patients. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 1988;1(4):361-6. Abstract

25. Meltzer MS, Skillman DR, Gomatos PJ, et al. Role of mononuclear phagocytes in the pathogenesis of human immunodeficiency virus infection. Annu Rev Immunol. 1990;8:169-94. Abstract

26. Gray JR, Rabeneck L. Atypical mycobacterial infection of the gastrointestinal tract in AIDS patients. Am J Gastroenterol. 1989 Dec;84(12):1521-4. Abstract

27. Stacey AR. Isolation of Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare-scrofulaceum complex from faeces of patients with AIDS. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed). 1986 Nov 8;293(6556):1194.Full text  Abstract

28. Gerna G, Parea M, Percivalle E, et al. Human cytomegalovirus viraemia in HIV-1-seropositive patients at various clinical stages of infection. AIDS. 1990 Oct;4(10):1027-31. Abstract

29. Gigliotti F, Wright TW. Immunopathogenesis of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Expert Rev Mol Med. 2005 Nov 14;7(26):1-16. Abstract

30. Subauste CS, Remington JS. Immunity to Toxoplasma gondii. Curr Opin Immunol. 1993 Aug;5(4):532-7. Abstract

31. Yap GS, Scharton-Kersten T, Charest H, et al. Decreased resistance of TNF receptor p55- and p75-deficient mice to chronic toxoplasmosis despite normal activation of inducible nitric oxide synthase in vivo. J Immunol. 1998 Feb 1;160(3):1340-5.Full text  Abstract

32. Chen XM, Keithly JS, Paya CV, et al. Cryptosporidiosis. N Engl J Med. 2002 May 30;346(22):1723-31. Abstract

33. Sonnenberg P, Glynn JR, Fielding K, et al. How soon after infection with HIV does the risk of tuberculosis start to increase? A retrospective cohort study in South African gold miners. J Infect Dis. 2005 Jan 15;191(2):150-8.Full text  Abstract

34. Havlir DV, Getahun H, Sanne I, et al. Opportunities and challenges for HIV care in overlapping HIV and TB epidemics. JAMA. 2008 Jul 23;300(4):423-30. Abstract

35. Badri M, Wilson D, Wood R. Effect of highly active antiretroviral therapy on incidence of tuberculosis in South Africa: a cohort study. Lancet. 2002 Jun 15;359(9323):2059-64. Abstract

36. Phair J, Munoz A, Detels R, et al. The risk of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia among men infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1990 Jan 18;322(3):161-5. Abstract

37. Grant IH, Gold JW, Rosenblum M, et al. Toxoplasma gondii serology in HIV-infected patients: the development of central nervous system toxoplasmosis in AIDS. AIDS. 1990 Jun;4(6):519-21. Abstract

38. Pinner RW, Hajjeh RA, Powderly WG. Prospects for preventing cryptococcosis in persons infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Clin Infect Dis. 1995 Aug;21(suppl 1):S103-7. Abstract

39. Levitz SM. The ecology of Cryptococcus neoformans and the epidemiology of cryptococcosis. Rev Infect Dis. 1991 Nov-Dec;13(6):1163-9. Abstract

40. Nightingale SD, Byrd LT, Southern PM, et al. Incidence of Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare complex bacteremia in human immunodeficiency virus-positive patients. J Infect Dis. 1992 Jun;165(6):1082-5. Abstract

41. Sax PE. Opportunistic infections in HIV disease: down but not out. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2001 Jun;15(2):433-55. Abstract

42. Jackson JB, Erice A, Englund JA, et al. Prevalence of cytomegalovirus antibody in hemophiliacs and homosexuals infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Transfusion. 1988 Mar-Apr;28(2):187-9. Abstract

43. Lin RY, Goodhart PT. Population characteristics of tuberculosis in an HIV/AIDS registry from an East Harlem Hospital. N Y State J Med. 1991 Jun;91(6):239-42. Abstract

44. Bennett DE, Courval JM, Onorato I, et al. Prevalence of tuberculosis infection in the United States population: the national health and nutrition examination survey, 1999-2000. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2008 Feb 1;177(3):348-55.Full text  Abstract

45. Selwyn PA, Sckell BM, Alcabes P, et al. High risk of active tuberculosis in HIV-infected drug users with cutaneous anergy. JAMA. 1992 Jul 22-29;268(4):504-9. Abstract

46. Soysa NS, Ellepola AN. The impact of cigarette/tobacco smoking on oral candidosis: an overview. Oral Dis. 2005 Sep;11(5):268-73. Abstract

47. Slavinsky J 3rd, Myers T, Swoboda RK, et al. Th1/Th2 cytokine profiles in saliva of HIV-positive smokers with oropharyngeal candidiasis. Oral Microbiol Immunol. 2002 Feb;17(1):38-43. Abstract

48. Carr A, Tindall B, Penny R, et al. Trimethoprim-sulphamethoxazole appears more effective than aerosolized pentamidine as secondary prophylaxis against Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with AIDS. AIDS. 1992 Feb;6(2):165-71. Abstract

49. Podzamczer D, Salazar A, Jimenez J, et al. Intermittent trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole compared with dapsone-pyrimethamine for the simultaneous primary prophylaxis of Pneumocystis pneumonia and toxoplasmosis in patients infected with HIV. Ann Intern Med. 1995 May 15;122(10):755-61. Abstract

50. Centers for Disease Control. Guidelines for prophylaxis against Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia for persons infected with human immunodeficiency virus. MMWR Suppl. 1989 Jun 16;38(5):1-9.Full text  Abstract

51. Trikalinos TA, Ioannidis JP. Discontinuation of Pneumocystis carinii prophylaxis in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus: a meta-analysis and decision analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 2001 Dec 1;33(11):1901-9.Full text  Abstract

52. Kovacs JA, Masur H. Prophylaxis against opportunistic infections in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med. 2000 May 11;342(19):1416-29. Abstract

53. Furrer H, Opravil M, Bernasconi E, et al. Stopping primary prophylaxis in HIV-1-infected patients at high risk of toxoplasma encephalitis. Swiss HIV Cohort Study. Lancet. 2000 Jun 24;355(9222):2217-8. Abstract

54. Sterling TR, Njie G, Zenner D, et al. Guidelines for the treatment of latent tuberculosis infection: recommendations from the National Tuberculosis Controllers Association and CDC, 2020. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2020 Feb 14;69(1):1-11.Full text  Abstract

55. World Health Organization. WHO consolidated guidelines on tuberculosis: module 1: prevention: tuberculosis preventive treatment. Mar 2020 [internet publication].Full text

56. Nolt D, Starke JR. Tuberculosis infection in children and adolescents: testing and treatment. Pediatrics. 2021 Dec 1;148(6):e2021054663.Full text  Abstract

57. Centers for Disease Control. Update: Fatal and severe liver injuries associated with rifampin and pyrazinamide for latent tuberculosis infection, and revisions in American Thoracic Society/CDC Recommendations - United States, 2001. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2001 Aug 31;50(34):733-5.Full text  Abstract

58. World Health Organization. Guidelines for diagnosing, preventing and managing cryptococcal disease among adults, adolescents and children living with HIV. Jun 2022 [internet publication].Full text

59. Greenberg SD, Frager D, Suster B, et al. Active pulmonary tuberculosis in patients with AIDS: spectrum of radiographic findings (including a normal appearance). Radiology. 1994 Oct;193(1):115-9. Abstract

60. Kennedy DJ, Lewis WP, Barnes PF. Yield of bronchoscopy for the diagnosis of tuberculosis in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Chest. 1992 Oct;102(4):1040-4. Abstract

61. Pepper T, Joseph P, Mwenya C, et al. Normal chest radiography in pulmonary tuberculosis: implications for obtaining respiratory specimen cultures. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2008 Apr;12(4):397-403.Full text  Abstract

62. World Health Organization. WHO consolidated guidelines on tuberculosis. Module 3: diagnosis - rapid diagnostics for tuberculosis detection 2021 update. Jul 2021 [internet publication].Full text

63. Bjerrum S, Schiller I, Dendukuri N, et al. Lateral flow urine lipoarabinomannan assay for detecting active tuberculosis in people living with HIV. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019 Oct 21;(10):CD011420.Full text  Abstract

64. Nathavitharana RR, Lederer P, Chaplin M, et al. Impact of diagnostic strategies for tuberculosis using lateral flow urine lipoarabinomannan assay in people living with HIV. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021 Aug 20;(8):CD014641.Full text  Abstract

65. Aljohaney A, Amjadi K, Alvarez GG. A systematic review of the epidemiology, immunopathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment of pleural TB in HIV-infected patients. Clin Dev Immunol. 2012;2012:842045.Full text  Abstract

66. Baba K, Hoosen AA, Langeland N, et al. Adenosine deaminase activity is a sensitive marker for the diagnosis of tuberculous pleuritis in patients with very low CD4 counts. PLoS One. 2008 Jul 30;3(7):e2788.Full text  Abstract

67. Torok ME, Chau TT, Mai PP, et al. Clinical and microbiological features of HIV-associated tuberculous meningitis in Vietnamese adults. PLoS One. 2008 Mar 19;3(3):e1772.Full text  Abstract

68. Aaron L, Saadoun D, Calatroni, I, et al. Tuberculosis in HIV-infected patients: a comprehensive review. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2004 May;10(5):388-98.Full text  Abstract

69. Mistry BJ, Kala UK. Palatial erosion caused by Mycobacterium Avium complex in a human immunodeficiency virus infected child. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2007 Jun;26(6):546-8. Abstract

70. Blumenthal DR, Zucker JR, Hawkins CC. Mycobacterium avium complex-induced septic arthritis and osteomyelitis in a patient with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Arthritis Rheum. 1990 May;33(5):757-8.Full text  Abstract

71. Cappell MS, Gupta A. Gastrointestinal hemorrhage due to gastrointestinal Mycobacterium avium intracellulare or esophageal candidiasis in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Gastroenterol. 1992 Feb;87(2):224-9. Abstract

72. von Reyn CF, Hennigan S, Niemczyk S, et al. Effect of delays in processing on the survival of Mycobacterium avium-M. intracellulare in the isolator blood culture system. J Clin Microbiol. 1991 Jun;29(6):1211-4.Full text  Abstract

73. Chin D, Hopewell PC, Yajko DM, et al. Mycobacterium avium complex in the respiratory or gastrointestinal tract and the risk of M. avium complex bacteremia in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Infect Dis. 1994 Feb;169(2):289-95. Abstract

74. Koh DM, Burn PR, Mathews G, et al. Abdominal computed tomographic findings of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium avium intracellulare infection in HIV seropositive patients. Can Assoc Radiol J. 2003 Feb;54(1):45-50. Abstract

75. Kovacs JA, Hiemenz JW, Macher AM, et al. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia: a comparison between patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and patients with other immunodeficiencies. Ann Intern Med. 1984 May;100(5):663-71. Abstract

76. Mascarenhas DA, Vasudevan VP, Vaidya KP. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Rare cause of hemoptysis. Chest. 1991 Jan;99(1):251-3. Abstract

77. Hopewell PC, Luce JM. Pulmonary involvement in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Chest. 1985 Jan;87(1):104-12. Abstract

78. Huang L, Stansell J, Osmond D, et al. Performance of an algorithm to detect Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in symptomatic HIV-infected persons. Chest. 1999 Apr;115(4):1025-32. Abstract

79. Zaman MK, White DA. Serum lactate dehydrogenase levels and Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Diagnostic and prognostic significance. Lancet. 1988 Nov 5;2(8619):1049-51. Abstract

80. Smith DE, McLuckie A, Wyatt J, et al. Severe exercise hypoxaemia with normal or near normal x-rays: a feature of Pneumocystis carinii infection. Lancet. 1988 Nov 5;2(8619):1049-51. Abstract

81. Cruciani M, Marcati P, Malena M, et al. Meta-analysis of diagnostic procedures for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in HIV-1-infected patients. Eur Respir J. 2002 Oct;20(4):982-9.Full text  Abstract

82. DeLorenzo LJ, Huang CT, Maguire GP, et al. Roentgenographic patterns of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in 104 patients with AIDS. Chest. 1987 Mar;91(3):323-7. Abstract

83. Abd AG, Nierman DM, Ilowite JS, et al. Bilateral upper lobe Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in a patient receiving inhaled pentamidine prophylaxis. Chest. 1988 Aug;94(2):329-31. Abstract

84. Vermeij CG, van der Pijl JW, Brahim JJ, et al. High-resolution computed tomography scan in Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Chest. 1995 Jan;107(1):293.Full text  Abstract

85. Coleman DL, Dodek PM, Luce JM, et al. Diagnostic utility of fiberoptic bronchoscopy in patients with Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia and the acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1983 Nov;128(5):795-9. Abstract

86. Khalkhali I, Mena I, Rauh DA, et al. 111-indium-DTPA-IgG lung imaging in patients with pulmonary and HIV infection. Chest. 1995 May;107(5):1336-41. Abstract

87. Kroe DM, Kirsch CM, Jensen WA. Diagnostic strategies for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Semin Respir Infect. 1997 Jun;12(2):70-8. Abstract

88. Smego RA Jr, Orlovic D, Wadula, J. An algorithmic approach to intracranial mass lesions in HIV/AIDS. Int J STD AIDS. 2006 Apr;17(4):271-6. Abstract

89. Levy RM, Mills CM, Posin JP, et al. The efficacy and clinical impact of brain imaging in neurologically symptomatic AIDS patients: a prospective CT/MRI study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 1990;3(5):461-71. Abstract

90. Luft BJ, Hafner R, Korzun AH, et al. Toxoplasmic encephalitis in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1993 Sep 30;329(14):995-1000.Full text  Abstract

91. Lorberboym M, Wallach F, Estok L, et al. Thallium-201 retention in focal intracranial lesions for differential diagnosis of primary lymphoma and nonmalignant lesions in AIDS patients. J Nucl Med. 1998 Aug;39(8):1366-9.Full text  Abstract

92. Love C, Tomas MB, Tronco GG, et al. FDG PET of infection and inflammation. Radiographics. 2005 Sep-Oct;25(5):1357-68.Full text  Abstract

93. Jabs DA. Ocular manifestations of HIV infection. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1995;93:623-83.Full text  Abstract

94. Kalayjian RC, Cohen ML, Bonomo RA, et al. Cytomegalovirus ventriculoencephalitis in AIDS. A syndrome with distinct clinical and pathologic features. Medicine (Baltimore). 1993 Mar;72(2):67-77. Abstract

95. Meiselman MS, Cello JP, Margaretten W. Cytomegalovirus colitis. Report of the clinical, endoscopic, and pathologic findings in two patients with the acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Gastroenterology. 1985 Jan;88(1 Pt 1):171-5. Abstract

96. Brantsaeter AB, Holberg-Petersen M, Jeansson S, et al. CMV quantitative PCR in the diagnosis of CMV disease in patients with HIV-infection - a retrospective autopsy based study. BMC Infect Dis. 2007 Nov 6;7:127.Full text  Abstract

97. Bianchi M, Robles AM, Vitale R, et al. The usefulness of blood culture in diagnosing HIV-related systemic mycoses: evaluation of a manual lysis centrifugation method. Med Mycol. 2000 Feb;38(1):77-80.Full text  Abstract

98. Tavitian A, Raufman JP, Rosenthal LE. Oral candidiasis as a marker for esophageal candidiasis in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Ann Intern Med. 1986 Jan;104(1):54-5. Abstract

99. Thom K, Forrest G. Gastrointestinal infections in immunocompromised hosts. Curr Opin Gastroenterol. 2006 Jan;22(1):18-23. Abstract

100. Nokta M. Oral manifestations associated with HIV infection. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep. 2008 Feb;5(1):5-12. Abstract

101. Havlir DV, Barnes PF. Tuberculosis in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med. 1999 Feb 4;340(5):367-73. Abstract

102. Armstrong WS, Katz JT, Kazanjian PH. Human immunodeficiency virus-associated fever of unknown origin: a study of 70 patients in the United States and review. Clin Infect Dis. 1999 Feb;28(2):341-5.Full text  Abstract

103. Havlik JA Jr, Horsburgh CR Jr, Metchock B, et al. Disseminated Mycobacterium avium complex infection: clinical identification and epidemiologic trends. J Infect Dis. 1992 Mar;165(3):577-80. Abstract

104. Fujii T, Nakamura T, Iwamoto A. Pneumocystis pneumonia in patients with HIV infection: clinical manifestations, laboratory findings, and radiological features. J Infect Chemother. 2007 Feb;13(1):1-7. Abstract

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106. Navia BA, Petito CK, Gold JW, et al. Cerebral toxoplasmosis complicating the acquired immune deficiency syndrome: clinical and neuropathological findings in 27 patients. Ann Neurol. 1986 Mar;19(3):224-38. Abstract

107. Bicanic T, Harrison TS. Cryptococcal meningitis. Br Med Bull. 2005 Apr 18;72:99-118.Full text  Abstract

108. Donald PR, Schoeman JF. Tuberculous meningitis. N Engl J Med. 2004 Oct 21;351(17):1719-20. Abstract

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111. Rabaud C, May T, Amiel C, et al. Extracerebral toxoplasmosis in patients infected with HIV. A French national survey. Medicine (Baltimore). 1994 Nov;73(6):306-14. Abstract

112. Perlman DC, el-Sadr WM, Nelson ET, et al. Variation of chest radiographic patterns in pulmonary tuberculosis by degree of human immunodeficiency virus-related immunosuppression. Clin Infect Dis. 1997 Aug;25(2):242-6. Abstract

113. Jost KC Jr, Dunbar DF, Barth SS, et al. Identification of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and M. avium complex directly from smear-positive sputum specimens and BACTEC 12B cultures by high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection and computer-driven pattern recognition models. J Clin Microbiol. 1995 May;33(5):1270-7.Full text  Abstract

114. Aderaye G, Woldeamanuel Y, Asrat D, et al. Evaluation of Toluidine Blue O staining for the diagnosis of Pneumocystis jiroveci in expectorated sputum sample and bronchoalveolar lavage from HIV-infected patients in a tertiary care referral center in Ethiopia. Infection. 2008 Jun;36(3):237-43. Abstract

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116. Stover DE, White DA, Romano PA, et al. Diagnosis of pulmonary disease in acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Role of bronchoscopy and bronchoalveolar lavage. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1984 Oct;130(4):659-62. Abstract

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118. Powderly WG, Mayer KH, Perfect JR. Diagnosis and treatment of oropharyngeal candidiasis in patients infected with HIV: a critical reassessment. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 1999 Nov 1;15(16):1405-12. Abstract

119. Skiest DJ, Crosby C. CMV pp65 antigen testing is of limited utility in the diagnosis of concomitant CMV disease in HIV-infected patients in the HAART era. J Clin Virol. 2003 Oct;28(2):203-13. Abstract

120. Colombo FA, Vidal JE, Penalva de Oliveira AC, et al. Diagnosis of cerebral toxoplasmosis in AIDS patients in Brazil: importance of molecular and immunological methods using peripheral blood samples. J Clin Microbiol. 2005 Oct;43(10):5044-7.Full text  Abstract

121. Graybill JR, Sobel J, Saag M, et al. Diagnosis and management of increased intracranial pressure in patients with AIDS and cryptococcal meningitis. Clin Infect Dis. 2000 Jan;30(1):47-54.Full text  Abstract

122. Dupon M, Cazenave J, Pellegrin JL, et al. Detection of Toxoplasma gondii by PCR and tissue culture in cerebrospinal fluid and blood of human immunodeficiency virus-seropositive patients. J Clin Microbiol. 1995 Sep;33(9):2421-6.Full text  Abstract

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124. Akpek G, Lee SM, Gagnon DR, et al. Bone marrow aspiration, biopsy, and culture in the evaluation of HIV-infected patients for invasive mycobacteria and histoplasma infections. Am J Hematol. 2001 Jun;67(2):100-6.Full text  Abstract

125. Tarantino L, Giorgio A, de Stefano G, et al. Disseminated mycobacterial infection in AIDS patients: abdominal US features and value of fine-needle aspiration biopsy of lymph nodes and spleen. Abdom Imaging. 2003 Sep-Oct;28(5):602-8. Abstract

126. Steininger C, Puchhammer-Stockl E, Popow-Kraupp T. Cytomegalovirus disease in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). J Clin Virol. 2006 Sep;37(1):1-9. Abstract

127. Gascon P, Sathe SS, Rameshwar P. Impaired erythropoiesis in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome with disseminated Mycobacterium avium complex. Am J Med. 1993 Jan;94(1):41-8. Abstract

128. Horsburgh CR Jr, Metchock B, Gordon SM, et al. Predictors of survival in patients with AIDS and disseminated Mycobacterium avium complex disease. J Infect Dis. 1994 Sep;170(3):573-7. Abstract

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