Assessment of rash in children

References

Key articles

Johnston GA, Exton LS, Mohd Mustapa MF, et al. British Association of Dermatologists' guidelines for the management of contact dermatitis 2017. Br J Dermatol. 2017 Feb;176(2):317-29. Abstract

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Meningitis (bacterial) and meningococcal septicaemia in under 16s: recognition, diagnosis and management. Feb 2015 [internet publication].Full text

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Fever in under 5s: assessment and initial management. Nov 2021 [internet publication].Full text

Reference articles

1. Knöpfel N, Noguera-Morel L, Latour I, et al. Viral exanthems in children: a great imitator. Clin Dermatol. 2019 May - Jun;37(3):213-26. Abstract

2. van Lier A, Smits G, Mollema L, et al. Varicella zoster virus infection occurs at a relatively young age in The Netherlands. Vaccine. 2013 Oct 17;31(44):5127-33. Abstract

3. Chovel-Sella A, Ben Tov A, Lahav E, at al. Incidence of rash after amoxicillin treatment in children with infectious mononucleosis. Pediatrics. 2013 May;131(5):e1424-7. Abstract

4. Drago F, Ciccarese G, Gasparini G, et al. Contemporary infectious exanthems: an update. Future Microbiol. 2017 Feb;12:171-93.Full text  Abstract

5. Saguil A, Kane SF, Lauters R, et al. Hand-foot-and-mouth disease: rapid evidence review. Am Fam Physician. 2019 Oct 1;100(7):408-14.Full text  Abstract

6. Castro MCR, Ramos-E-Silva M. The rash with mucosal ulceration. Clin Dermatol. 2020 Jan - Feb;38(1):35-41. Abstract

7. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Measles cases and outbreaks: measles cases in 2019. Dec 2020 [internet publication].Full text

8. Karnad DR, Richards GA, Silva GS, et al. Tropical diseases in the ICU: a syndromic approach to diagnosis and treatment. J Crit Care. 2018 Aug;46:119-26. Abstract

9. Freeman EE, McMahon DE, Lipoff JB, et al. Pernio-like skin lesions associated with COVID-19: a case series of 318 patients from 8 countries. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2020 Aug;83(2):486-92.Full text  Abstract

10. Andina D, Belloni-Fortina A, Bodemer C, et al. Skin manifestations of COVID-19 in children: part 1. Clin Exp Dermatol. 2021 Apr;46(3):444-50.Full text  Abstract

11. Almeida G, Arruda S, Marques E, et al. Presentation and management of cutaneous manifestations of COVID-19. J Drugs Dermatol. 2021 Jan 1;20(1):76-83.Full text  Abstract

12. Baradaran A, Malek A, Moazzen N, et al. COVID-19 associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Iran J Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2020 Dec 19;19(6):570-88.Full text  Abstract

13. Treadwell PA. Papulosquamous disorders: atopic dermatitis, psoriasis, seborrheic dermatitis, and nickel contact dermatitis. Adolesc Med State Art Rev. 2011 Apr;22(1):157-68. Abstract

14. Clark GW, Pope SM, Jaboori KA. Diagnosis and treatment of seborrheic dermatitis. Am Fam Physician. 2015 Feb 1;91(3):185-90.Full text  Abstract

15. Milingou M, Tagka A, Armenaka M, et al. Patch tests in children: a review of 13 years of experience in comparison with previous data. Pediatr Dermatol. 2010 May-Jun;27(3):255-9. Abstract

16. Johnston GA, Exton LS, Mohd Mustapa MF, et al. British Association of Dermatologists' guidelines for the management of contact dermatitis 2017. Br J Dermatol. 2017 Feb;176(2):317-29. Abstract

17. Marji JS, Marcus R, Moennich J, et al. Use of biologic agents in pediatric psoriasis. J Drugs Dermatol. 2010 Aug;9(8):975-86. Abstract

18. Zawar V. Unilateral pityriasis rosea in a child. J Dermatol Case Rep. 2010 Dec 31;4(4):54-6.Full text  Abstract

19. Hay RJ, Steer AC, Engelman D, et al. Scabies in the developing world - its prevalence, complications, and management. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2012 Apr;18(4):313-23. Abstract

20. Fuller LC, Barton RC, Mohd Mustapa MF, et al. British Association of Dermatologists' guidelines for the management of tinea capitis 2014. Br J Dermatol. 2014 Sep;171(3):454-63.Full text  Abstract

21. Cohen B. Differential diagnosis of diaper dermatitis. Clin Pediatr (Phila). 2017 May;56(5_suppl):16S-22S.Full text  Abstract

22. Lebsing S, Chaiyarit J, Techasatian L. Diaper rashes can indicate systemic conditions other than diaper dermatitis. BMC Dermatol. 2020 Sep 21;20(1):7.Full text  Abstract

23. Usatine RP, Sandy N. Dermatologic emergencies. Am Fam Physician. 2010 Oct 1;82(7):773-80.Full text  Abstract

24. McFee RB. Tick borne illness - Rocky mountain spotted fever. Dis Mon. 2018 May;64(5):185-94. Abstract

25. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Lyme disease. Oct 2018 [internet publication].Full text

26. Hoetzenecker W, Nägeli M, Mehra ET, et al. Adverse cutaneous drug eruptions: current understanding. Semin Immunopathol. 2016 Jan;38(1):75-86. Abstract

27. Waldman R, Whitaker-Worth D, Grant-Kels JM. Cutaneous adverse drug reactions: kids are not just little people. Clin Dermatol. 2017 Nov - Dec;35(6):566-82. Abstract

28. Belum VR, Benhuri B, Postow MA, et al. Characterisation and management of dermatologic adverse events to agents targeting the PD-1 receptor. Eur J Cancer. 2016 Jun;60:12-25.Full text  Abstract

29. Miliszewski MA, Kirchhof MG, Sikora S, et al. Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis: an analysis of triggers and implications for improving prevention. Am J Med. 2016 Nov;129(11):1221-5. Abstract

30. Bauer KA, Brimhall AK, Chang TT. Drug reaction with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms (DRESS) associated with azithromycin in acute Epstein-Barr virus infection. Pediatr Dermatol. 2011 Nov-Dec;28(6):741-3. Abstract

31. Husain Z, Reddy BY, Schwartz RA. DRESS syndrome: part I. Clinical perspectives. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2013 May;68(5):693.e1-14; quiz 706-8. Abstract

32. Adwan MH. Drug reaction with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms (DRESS) syndrome and the rheumatologist. Curr Rheumatol Rep. 2017 Jan;19(1):3. Abstract

33. Meningitis Research Foundation. Meningococcal meningitis and sepsis: guidance notes. 2018 [internet publication].Full text

34. O'Byrne P, MacPherson P. Syphilis. BMJ. 2019 Jun 28;365:l4159.Full text  Abstract

35. Florez-Pollack S, Mauskar MM. Disseminated gonococcal infection. N Engl J Med. 2019 Apr 18;380(16):1565. Abstract

36. Kelchtermans J, Grossar L, Eyskens B, et al. Clinical characteristics of infective endocarditis in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2019 May;38(5):453-8. Abstract

37. Baltimore RS, Gewitz M, Baddour LM, et al; American Heart Association Rheumatic Fever, Endocarditis, and Kawasaki Disease Committee of the Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young and the Council on Cardiovascular and Stroke Nursing. Infective endocarditis in childhood: 2015 update: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2015 Oct 13;132(15):1487-515.Full text  Abstract

38. Brewer JD, Hundley MD, Meves A, et al. Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome and toxic shock syndrome after tooth extraction. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2008 Aug;59(2):342-6. Abstract

39. Strom MA, Hsu DY, Silverberg JI. Prevalence, comorbidities and mortality of toxic shock syndrome in children and adults in the USA. Microbiol Immunol. 2017 Nov;61(11):463-73.Full text  Abstract

40. Zuberbier T, Aberer W, Asero R, et al. The EAACI/GA²LEN/EDF/WAO guideline for the definition, classification, diagnosis and management of urticaria. Allergy. 2018 Jul;73(7):1393-414.Full text  Abstract

41. Najib U, Sheikh J. An update on acute and chronic urticaria for the primary care provider. Postgrad Med. 2009 Jan;121(1):141-51. Abstract

42. Chafen JJ, Newberry SJ, Riedl MA, et al. Diagnosing and managing common food allergies: a systematic review. JAMA. 2010 May 12;303(18):1848-56. Abstract

43. Teachey DT, Lambert MP. Diagnosis and management of autoimmune cytopenias in childhood. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2013 Dec;60(6):1489-511. Abstract

44. Rashtak S, Pittelkow MR. Skin involvement in systemic autoimmune diseases. Curr Dir Autoimmun. 2008;10:344-58. Abstract

45. Webb RH, Grant C, Harnden A. Acute rheumatic fever. BMJ. 2015 Jul 14;351:h3443. Abstract

46. Miyake CY, Gauvreau K, Tani LY, et al. Characteristics of children discharged from hospitals in the United States in 2000 with the diagnosis of acute rheumatic fever. Pediatrics. 2007 Sep;120(3):503-8. Abstract

47. Hornor G. Medical evaluation for child physical abuse: what the PNP needs to know. J Pediatr Health Care. 2012 May-Jun;26(3):163-70; quiz 171-3. Abstract

48. Mohandas P, Ravenscroft JC, Bewley A. Dermatitis artefacta in childhood and adolescence: a spectrum of disease. G Ital Dermatol Venereol. 2018 Aug;153(4):525-34. Abstract

49. Singer M, Deutschman CS, Seymour CW, et al. The Third International Consensus Definitions for sepsis and septic shock (Sepsis-3). JAMA. 2016 Feb 23;315(8):801-10.Full text  Abstract

50. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Sepsis: recognition, diagnosis and early management. Sep 2017 [internet publication].Full text

51. Weiss SL, Peters MJ, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving sepsis campaign international guidelines for the management of septic shock and sepsis-associated organ dysfunction in children. Intensive Care Med. 2020 Feb;46(suppl 1):10-67.Full text  Abstract

52. Royal College of Physicians. National Early Warning Score (NEWS) 2. Dec 2017 [internet publication]Full text

53. American College of Emergency Physicians (ACEP) Expert Panel on Sepsis. DART: an evidence-driven tool to guide the early recognition and treatment of sepsis and septic shock. 2022 [internet publication].Full text

54. Academy of Medical Royal Colleges. Statement on the initial antimicrobial treatment of sepsis. May 2022 [internet publication].Full text

55. Shaker MS, Wallace DV, Golden DBK, et al. Anaphylaxis-a 2020 practice parameter update, systematic review, and Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) analysis. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2020 Apr;145(4):1082-123.Full text  Abstract

56. Heckenberg SG, Brouwer MC, van de Beek D, et al. Bacterial meningitis. Handb Clin Neurol. 2014;121:1361-75. Abstract

57. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Meningitis (bacterial) and meningococcal septicaemia in under 16s: recognition, diagnosis and management. Feb 2015 [internet publication].Full text

58. UK Health Security Agency. Scarlet fever: symptoms, diagnosis and treatment. Mar 2019 [internet publication].Full text

59. UK Health Security Agency. Group A streptococcal infections: seventh update on seasonal activity in England. Jan 2023 [internet publication].Full text

60. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.​ Health Alert Network: increase in pediatric invasive group A streptococcal infections. Dec 2022 [internet publication].Full text

61. UK Health Security Agency. Group A streptococcal infections: report on seasonal activity in England, 2022 to 2023. Dec 2022 [internet publication].Full text

62. Shulman ST, Bisno AL, Clegg HW, et al. Clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis and management of group A streptococcal pharyngitis: 2012 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2012 Nov 15;55(10):e86-102.Full text  Abstract

63. Committee on Infectious Diseases, American Academy of Pediatrics; Kimberlin DW, Barnett ED, Lynfield R et al. Red Book: 2021–2024 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. 32nd ed. American Academy of Pediatrics; 2021.Full text

64. Gerber MA, Baltimore RS, Eaton CB, et al. Prevention of rheumatic fever and diagnosis and treatment of acute Streptococcal pharyngitis: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association Rheumatic Fever, Endocarditis, and Kawasaki Disease Committee of the Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, the Interdisciplinary Council on Functional Genomics and Translational Biology, and the Interdisciplinary Council on Quality of Care and Outcomes Research: endorsed by the American Academy of Pediatrics. Circulation. 2009 Mar 24;119(11):1541-51.Full text  Abstract

65. Dixon G, Christov G. Infective endocarditis in children: an update. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2017 Jun;30(3):257-67. Abstract

66. Webb R, Voss L, Roberts S, et al. Infective endocarditis in New Zealand children 1994-2012. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2014 May;33(5):437-42. Abstract

67. Mathur AN, Mathes EF. Urticaria mimickers in children. Dermatol Ther. 2013 Nov-Dec;26(6):467-75. Abstract

68. Tabel Y, Inanc FC, Dogan DG, et al. Clinical features of children with Henoch-Schonlein purpura: risk factors associated with renal involvement. Iran J Kidney Dis. 2012 Jul;6(4):269-74. Abstract

69. Kellogg ND; American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Child Abuse and Neglect. Evaluation of suspected child physical abuse. Pediatrics. 2007 Jun;119(6):1232-41.Full text  Abstract

70. McCrindle BW, Rowley AH, Newburger JW, et al. Diagnosis, treatment, and long-term management of Kawasaki disease: a scientific statement for health professionals from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2017 Apr 25;135(17):e927-99.Full text  Abstract

71. Jamieson N, Singh-Grewal D. Kawasaki disease: a clinician's update. Int J Pediatr. 2013;2013:645391.Full text  Abstract

72. World Health Organization. Dengue and severe dengue. May 2021 [internet publication].Full text

73. World Health Organization, Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases (TDR). Dengue: guidelines for diagnosis, treatment, prevention and control. April 2009 [internet publication].Full text

74. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Fever in under 5s: assessment and initial management. Nov 2021 [internet publication].Full text

75. American Academy of Pediatrics. Lyme disease. In: Kimberlin DW, Brady MT, Jackson MA, et al, eds. Red book 2018-2021: report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. 31st ed. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2018:515-23.

76. Public Health England. National measles guidelines. Nov 2019 [internet publication].Full text

77. World Health Organization, Regional Office for South-East Asia. Comprehensive guidelines for prevention and control of dengue and dengue haemorrhagic fever - revised and expanded edition. 2011 [internet publication].Full text

78. Premaratna R, Pathmeswaran A, Amarasekara ND, et al. A clinical guide for early detection of dengue fever and timing of investigations to detect patients likely to develop complications. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2009 Feb;103(2):127-31. Abstract

79. World Health Organization, Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases (TDR). Dengue: guidelines for diagnosis, treatment, prevention and control. 2009 [internet publication].Full text

80. Atanasković-Marković M, Janković J, Tmušić V, et al. Hypersensitivity reactions to antiepileptic drugs in children. Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 2019 Aug;30(5):547-52. Abstract

81. Van den Bruel A, Haj-Hassan T, Thompson M, et al. Diagnostic value of clinical features at presentation to identify serious infection in children in developed countries: a systematic review. Lancet. 2010 Mar 6;375(9717):834-45. Abstract

82. Pite H, Wedi B, Borrego LM, et al. Management of childhood urticaria: current knowledge and practical recommendations. Acta Derm Venereol. 2013 Sep 4;93(5):500-8.Full text  Abstract

83. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Meningitis (bacterial) and meningococcal septicaemia in under 16s: recognition, diagnosis and management. Feb 2015 [internet publication].Full text

84. Elzagallaai AA, Knowles SR, Rieder MJ, et al. Patch testing for the diagnosis of anticonvulsant hypersensitivity syndrome: a systematic review. Drug Saf. 2009;32(5):391-408. Abstract

85. Shi YW, Min FL, Zhou D, et al. HLA-A*24:02 as a common risk factor for antiepileptic drug-induced cutaneous adverse reactions. Neurology. 2017 Jun 6;88(23):2183-91.Full text  Abstract

86. Saito M, Yagi M, Uno K, et al. Comparative study of the usefulness of the drug-induced lymphocyte stimulation test and the leukocyte migration test in drug allergies. Biol Pharm Bull. 2008 Feb;31(2):299-304.Full text  Abstract

87. Menter A, Cordoro KM, Davis DMR, et al. Joint American Academy of Dermatology-National Psoriasis Foundation guidelines of care for the management and treatment of psoriasis in pediatric patients. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2020 Jan;82(1):161-201.Full text  Abstract

88. Chadha A, Jahnke M. Common neonatal rashes. Pediatr Ann. 2019 Jan 1;48(1):e16-e22. Abstract

89. Reginatto FP, Villa DD, Cestari TF. Benign skin disease with pustules in the newborn. An Bras Dermatol. 2016 Apr;91(2):124-34.Full text  Abstract

90. Lipozencić J, Wolf R. The diagnostic value of atopy patch testing and prick testing in atopic dermatitis: facts and controversies. Clin Dermatol. 2010 Jan-Feb;28(1):38-44. Abstract

91. World Health Organization. WHO information notice for IVD users 2020/05. Nucleic acid testing (NAT) technologies that use polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for detection of SARS-CoV-2. Jan 2021 [internet publication].Full text

92. Mork RL, Hogan PG, Muenks CE, et al. Longitudinal, strain-specific Staphylococcus aureus introduction and transmission events in households of children with community-associated meticillin-resistant S aureus skin and soft tissue infection: a prospective cohort study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2020 Feb;20(2):188-98.Full text  Abstract

93. Oakley A. DermNet AZ. Wood lamp skin examination. 2014 [internet publication].Full text

94. Goldstein B, Giroir B, Randolph A, et al. International pediatric sepsis consensus conference: definitions for sepsis and organ dysfunction in pediatrics. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2005 Jan;6(1):2-8.Full text  Abstract

95. Mahajan P, Grzybowski M, Chen X, et al. Procalcitonin as a marker of serious bacterial infections in febrile children younger than 3 years old. Acad Emerg Med. 2014 Feb;21(2):171-9.Full text  Abstract

96. Milcent K, Faesch S, Gras-Le Guen C, et al. Use of procalcitonin assays to predict serious bacterial infection in young febrile infants. JAMA Pediatr. 2016 Jan;170(1):62-9.Full text  Abstract

97. Pantell RH, Roberts KB, Adams WG, et al. Evaluation and management of well-appearing febrile infants 8 to 60 Days Old. Pediatrics. 2021 Aug;148(2):e2021052228.Full text  Abstract

98. Windfuhr JP, Toepfner N, Steffen G, et al. Clinical practice guideline: tonsillitis I. Diagnostics and nonsurgical management. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2016 Apr;273(4):973-87.Full text  Abstract

99. Cohen JF, Bertille N, Cohen R, et al. Rapid antigen detection test for group A streptococcus in children with pharyngitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016 Jul 4;7(7):CD010502.Full text  Abstract

100. Lean WL, Arnup S, Danchin M, et al. Rapid diagnostic tests for group A streptococcal pharyngitis: a meta-analysis. Pediatrics. 2014 Oct;134(4):771-81. Abstract

101. Barakat AJ, Evans C, Gill M, et al. Rapid strep testing in children with recently treated streptococcal pharyngitis. Pediatr Investig. 2019 Mar;3(1):27-30.Full text  Abstract

102. Langan SM, Irvine AD, Weidinger S. Atopic dermatitis. Lancet. 2020 Aug 1;396(10247):345-60. Abstract

Use of this content is subject to our disclaimer