Evaluation of altered mental status

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2. Wilber ST, Ondrejka JE. Altered mental status and delirium. Emerg Med Clin North Am. 2016 Aug;34(3):649-65. Abstract

3. Xiao HY, Wang YX, Xu TD, et al. Evaluation and treatment of altered mental status patients in the emergency department: life in the fast lane. World J Emerg Med. 2012;3(4):270-7.Full text  Abstract

4. Aslaner MA, Boz M, Çelik A, et al. Etiologies and delirium rates of elderly ED patients with acutely altered mental status: a multicenter prospective study. Am J Emerg Med. 2017 Jan;35(1):71-6. Abstract

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6. Lehman RK, Mink J. Altered mental status. Clin Pediatr Emerg Med. 2008;9:68-75.

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8. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Delirium: prevention, diagnosis and management in hospital and long-term care. Jan 2023 [internet publication].Full text

9. The Scottish Hip Fracture Audit Steering Group​. Scottish standards of care for hip fracture patients. Jul 2019 [internet publication].Full text

10. Royal College of Physicians. Facing new challenges: the National Hip Fracture Database report on 2020. Oct 2021 [internet publication].Full text

11. Huff JS, Melnick ER, Tomaszewski CA, et al; American College of Emergency Physicians. Clinical policy: critical issues in the evaluation and management of adult patients presenting to the emergency department with seizures. Ann Emerg Med. 2014 Apr;63(4):437-47;e15.Full text  Abstract

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13. van den Born BH, Lip GYH, Brguljan-Hitij J, et al. ESC Council on hypertension position document on the management of hypertensive emergencies. Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Pharmacother. 2019 Jan 1;5(1):37-46.Full text  Abstract

14. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 5th ed., text revision (DSM-5-TR). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2022.

15. Cole MG, Ciampi A, Belzile E, et al. Persistent delirium in older hospital patients: a systematic review of frequency and prognosis. Age Ageing. 2009 Jan;38(1):19-26.Full text  Abstract

16. Ferrer R, Martin-Loeches I, Phillips G, et al. Empiric antibiotic treatment reduces mortality in severe sepsis and septic shock from the first hour: results from a guideline-based performance improvement program. Crit Care Med. 2014 Aug;42(8):1749-55. Abstract

17. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Suspected sepsis: recognition, diagnosis and early management. Mar 2024 [internet publication].Full text

18. Evans L, Rhodes A, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving sepsis campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock 2021. Crit Care Med. 2021 Nov 1;49(11):e1063-143.Full text  Abstract

19. Singer M, Deutschman CS, Seymour CW, et al. The Third International Consensus definitions for sepsis and septic shock (Sepsis-3). JAMA. 2016 Feb 23;315(8):801-10.Full text  Abstract

20. Royal College of Physicians. National Early Warning Score (NEWS) 2. December 2017 [internet publication].Full text

21. American College of Emergency Physicians (ACEP) Expert Panel on Sepsis. DART: an evidence-driven tool to guide the early recognition and treatment of sepsis and septic shock [internet publication].Full text

22. Academy of Medical Royal Colleges. Statement on the initial antimicrobial treatment of sepsis. May 2022 [internet publication].Full text

23. Schlapbach LJ, Watson RS, Sorce LR, et al. International consensus criteria for pediatric sepsis and septic shock. JAMA. 2024 Feb 27;331(8):665-74.Full text  Abstract

24. Society of Critical Care Medicine. Surviving Sepsis Campaign Hour-1 Bundle. 2019 [internet publication].Full text

25. Marcantonio ER. Delirium in hospitalized older adults. N Engl J Med. 2017 Oct 12;377(15):1456-66.Full text  Abstract

26. Boucher V, Lamontagne ME, Nadeau A, et al. Unrecognized incident delirium in older emergency department patients. J Emerg Med. 2019 Oct;57(4):535-42. Abstract

27. Han JH, Zimmerman EE, Cutler N, et al. Delirium in older emergency department patients: recognition, risk factors, and psychomotor subtypes. Acad Emerg Med. 2009 Mar;16(3):193-200.Full text  Abstract

28. Wong CL, Holroyd-Leduc J, Simel DL, et al. Does this patient have delirium?: value of bedside instruments. JAMA. 2010 Aug 18;304(7):779-86. Abstract

29. Han JH, Wilson A, Graves AJ, et al. Validation of the Confusion Assessment Method for the Intensive Care Unit in older emergency department patients. Acad Emerg Med. 2014 Feb;21(2):180-7. Abstract

30. Inouye SK, Kosar CM, Tommet D, et al. The CAM-S: development and validation of a new scoring system for delirium severity in 2 cohorts. Ann Intern Med. 2014 Apr 15;160(8):526-33. Abstract

31. Marcantonio ER, Ngo LH, O'Connor M, et al. 3D-CAM: derivation and validation of a 3-minute diagnostic interview for CAM-defined delirium: a cross-sectional diagnostic test study. Ann Intern Med. 2014 Oct 21;161(8):554-61.Full text  Abstract

32. De J, Wand AP. Delirium Screening: a systematic review of delirium screening tools in hospitalized patients. Gerontologist. 2015 Dec;55(6):1079-99.Full text  Abstract

33. Neto AS, Nassar AP Jr, Cardoso SO, et al. Delirium screening in critically ill patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care Med. 2012 Jun;40(6):1946-51. Abstract

34. Jones RN, Cizginer S, Pavlech L, et al. Assessment of instruments for measurement of delirium severity: a systematic review. JAMA Intern Med. 2019 Feb 1;179(2):231-9. Abstract

35. Quispel-Aggenbach DWP, Holtman GA, Zwartjes HAHT, et al. Attention, arousal and other rapid bedside screening instruments for delirium in older patients: a systematic review of test accuracy studies. Age Ageing. 2018 Sep 1;47(5):644-53.Full text  Abstract

36. 4AT. Rapid clinical test for delirium. 2020 [internet publication].Full text

37. Folstein MF, Folstein SE, McHugh PR. "Mini-mental state": a practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician. J Psychiatr Res. 1975 Nov;12(3):189-98. Abstract

38. Mitchell AJ. A meta-analysis of the accuracy of the mini-mental state examination in the detection of dementia and mild cognitive impairment. J Psychiatr Res. 2009 Jan;43(4):411-31. Abstract

39. Arevalo-Rodriguez I, Smailagic N, Roqué I Figuls M, et al. Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) for the detection of Alzheimer's disease and other dementias in people with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015 Mar 5;(3):CD010783.Full text  Abstract

40. Tsoi KK, Chan JY, Hirai HW, et al. Cognitive tests to detect dementia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Intern Med. 2015 Sep;175(9):1450-8. Abstract

41. Nasreddine ZS, Phillips NA, Bédirian V, et al. The Montreal cognitive assessment, MoCA: a brief screening tool for mild cognitive impairment. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2005 Apr;53(4):695-9. Abstract

42. Smith T, Gildeh N, Holmes C. The Montreal cognitive assessment: validity and utility in a memory clinic setting. Can J Psychiatry. 2007 May;52(5):329-32. Abstract

43. Dalrymple-Alford JC, MacAskill MR, Nakas CT, et al. The MoCA: well-suited screen for cognitive impairment in Parkinson disease. Neurology. 2010 Nov 9;75(19):1717-25. Abstract

44. Morandi A, McCurley J, Vasilevskis EE, et al. Tools to detect delirium superimposed on dementia: a systematic review. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2012 Nov;60(11):2005-13.Full text  Abstract

45. Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network. Risk reduction and management of delirium. March 2019 [internet publication].Full text

46. European Association for the Study of the Liver. EASL clinical practice guidelines on the management of hepatic encephalopathy. J Hepatol. 2022 Sep;77(3):807-24.Full text  Abstract

47. Sidhu KS, Balon R, Ajluni V, et al. Standard EEG and the difficult-to-assess mental status. Ann Clin Psychiatry. 2009 Apr-Jun;21(2):103-8. Abstract

48. Powers WJ, Rabinstein AA, Ackerson T, et al; American Heart Association Stroke Council. 2018 guidelines for the early management of patients with acute ischemic stroke: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2018 Mar;49(3):e46-110.Full text  Abstract

49. McKhann GM, Knopman DS, Chertkow H, et al. The diagnosis of dementia due to Alzheimer's disease: recommendations from the National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer's Association workgroups on diagnostic guidelines for Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimers Dement. 2011 May;7(3):263-9.Full text  Abstract

50. Jack CR Jr, Andrews JS, Beach TG, et al. Revised criteria for diagnosis and staging of alzheimer's disease: Alzheimer's Association Workgroup. Alzheimers Dement. 2024 Aug;20(8):5143-69.Full text  Abstract

51. Rondon-Berrios H, Argyropoulos C, Ing TS, et al. Hypertonicity: clinical entities, manifestations and treatment. World J Nephrol. 2017 Jan 6;6(1):1-13. Abstract

52. Hoorn EJ, Zietse R. Diagnosis and treatment of hyponatremia: compilation of the guidelines. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2017 May;28(5):1340-9.Full text  Abstract

53. Turner JJO. Hypercalcaemia - presentation and management. Clin Med (Lond). 2017 Jun;17(3):270-3.Full text  Abstract

54. Vilstrup H, Amodio P, Bajaj J, et al. Hepatic encephalopathy in chronic liver disease: 2014 practice guideline by the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases and the European Association for the Study of the Liver. Hepatology. 2014 Aug;60(2):715-35.Full text  Abstract

55. McGill F, Heyderman RS, Panagiotou S, et al. Acute bacterial meningitis in adults. Lancet. 2016 Dec 17;388(10063):3036-47. Abstract

56. Gonzalez H, Koralnik IJ, Marra CM. Neurosyphilis. Semin Neurol. 2019 Aug;39(4):448-55. Abstract

57. Brouwer MC, Tunkel AR, McKhann GM 2nd, et al. Brain abscess. N Engl J Med. 2014 Jul 31;371(5):447-56. Abstract

58. American College of Emergency Physicians. Clinical policy: critical issues in the diagnosis and management of the adult psychiatric patient in the emergency department. Ann Emerg Med. 2017 Apr;69(4):480-98.Full text  Abstract