Summary
Definition
History and exam
Key diagnostic factors
- acute onset of symptoms
- mechanism of injury
- severe pain
- swelling
- bruising
- palpable gap in normal position for Achilles tendon (Achilles tendon rupture)
- positive calf squeeze test (Achilles tendon rupture)
- positive Matles test (Achilles tendon rupture)
- positive biceps squeeze test (biceps tendon rupture)
- positive Hook test (biceps tendon rupture)
- pop sound
- deformity
Other diagnostic factors
- previous injury
- symptom duration more than a few days
- limited range of motion (ROM)
- weakness
Risk factors
- type of sports (basketball, ice skating, soccer, contact sports)
- anatomic variation
- eccentric exercise
- pennate muscle architecture and type II muscle fibers (fast twitch)
- muscle-tendon units that span 2 joints
- previous history of ankle sprain
Diagnostic tests
1st tests to order
- x-rays
- MRI
- ultrasound for nonligament injuries
Tests to consider
- diagnostic arthroscopy
Treatment algorithm
presenting within the first 24 to 48 hours: incomplete rupture (grade 1 or 2) suspected
presenting within the first 24 to 48 hours: confirmed complete rupture (grade 3)
with worse pain and/or without functional improvement at 1-week review
Contributors
Authors
Senthil N. Sambandam, MBBS, MS, MRCS(Edn)
Staff Orthopaedic Surgeon
Department of Orthopaedics
VA Medical Center
Cheyenne
WY
Disclosures
SNS declares that he has no competing interests.
Varatharaj Mounasamy, MD, FRCS
Assistant Professor
Department of Orthopaedic Surgery
Virginia Commonwealth University
Richmond
VA
Disclosures
VM is an editorial board member, European Journal of Orthopaedic Surgery & Traumatology.
Sakthivel Rajaram Manoharan, MD, MS
Spinal Clinical Research Fellow
Queens Medical Centre
Nottingham
UK
Disclosures
SRM declares that he has no competing interests.
Acknowledgements
Dr Senthil N. Sambandam, Dr Varatharaj Mounasamy, and Dr Sakthivel Rajaram Manoharan would like to gratefully acknowledge Dr Issada Thongtrangan, a previous contributor to this topic. IT declares that he has no competing interests.
Peer reviewers
Quanjun Cui, MD
Assistant Professor
Department of Orthopaedics
University of Virginia
Charlottesville
VA
Disclosures
QC declares that he has no competing interests.
Nicola Maffulli, MD, MS, PhD, FRCS(Orth)
Professor of Trauma and Orthopaedic Surgery
University Hospital of North Staffordshire
Keele University School of Medicine
Stoke on Trent
UK
Disclosures
NM is an author of a study referenced in this topic.
References
Key articles
Bahr R. Can we prevent ankle sprains? In: MacAuley D, Best TM, eds. Evidence-based sports medicine, 14th ed. London: BMJ, 2002:470.
Fong DT, Hong Y, Chan LK, et al. A systematic review on ankle injury and ankle sprain in sports. Sports Med. 2007;37:73-94. Abstract
Noonan TJ, Garrett WE Jr. Muscle strain injury: diagnosis and treatment. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 1999;7:262-269. Abstract
Speer KP, Lohnes J, Garett WE Jr. Radiographic imaging of muscle strain injury. Am J Sports Med. 1993;21:89-95. Abstract
Boutin RD, Fritz RC, Steinbach LS. Imaging of sports-related muscle injuries. Radiol Clin North Am. 2002;40:333-362. Abstract
Vuurberg G, Hoorntje A, Wink LM, et al. Diagnosis, treatment and prevention of ankle sprains: update of an evidence-based clinical guideline. Br J Sports Med. 2018 Aug;52(15):956.Full text Abstract
Hertel J. The role of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in the treatment of acute soft tissue injuries. J Athl Train. 1997;32:350-358.Full text Abstract
Reference articles
A full list of sources referenced in this topic is available to users with access to all of BMJ Best Practice.
Differentials
- Fracture
- Cartilage injury
More DifferentialsGuidelines
- ACR Appropriateness Criteria Acute Trauma to the Ankle
- Nonpharmacologic and pharmacologic management of acute pain from non–low back, musculoskeletal injuries in adults: a clinical guideline from the American College of Physicians and American Academy of Family Physicians
More GuidelinesPatient information
Ankle sprain
More Patient informationLog in or subscribe to access all of BMJ Best Practice
Use of this content is subject to our disclaimer