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Musculoskeletal sprains and strains

Last reviewed: 4 Apr 2025
Last updated: 28 Jan 2025

Summary

Definition

History and exam

Key diagnostic factors

  • acute onset of symptoms
  • mechanism of injury
  • severe pain
  • swelling
  • bruising
  • palpable gap in normal position for Achilles tendon (Achilles tendon rupture)
  • positive calf squeeze test (Achilles tendon rupture)
  • positive Matles test (Achilles tendon rupture)
  • positive biceps squeeze test (biceps tendon rupture)
  • positive Hook test (biceps tendon rupture)
  • pop sound
  • deformity
Full details

Other diagnostic factors

  • previous injury
  • symptom duration more than a few days
  • limited range of motion (ROM)
  • weakness
Full details

Risk factors

  • type of sports (basketball, ice skating, soccer, contact sports)
  • anatomic variation
  • eccentric exercise
  • pennate muscle architecture and type II muscle fibers (fast twitch)
  • muscle-tendon units that span 2 joints
  • previous history of ankle sprain
Full details

Diagnostic tests

1st tests to order

  • x-rays
  • MRI
  • ultrasound for nonligament injuries
Full details

Tests to consider

  • diagnostic arthroscopy
Full details

Treatment algorithm

ACUTE

presenting within the first 24 to 48 hours: incomplete rupture (grade 1 or 2) suspected

presenting within the first 24 to 48 hours: confirmed complete rupture (grade 3)

ONGOING

with worse pain and/or without functional improvement at 1-week review

Contributors

Authors

Staff Orthopaedic Surgeon

Department of Orthopaedics

VA Medical Center

Cheyenne

WY

Disclosures

SNS declares that he has no competing interests.

Assistant Professor

Department of Orthopaedic Surgery

Virginia Commonwealth University

Richmond

VA

Disclosures

VM is an editorial board member, European Journal of Orthopaedic Surgery & Traumatology.

Spinal Clinical Research Fellow

Queens Medical Centre

Nottingham

UK

Disclosures

SRM declares that he has no competing interests.

Dr Senthil N. Sambandam, Dr Varatharaj Mounasamy, and Dr Sakthivel Rajaram Manoharan would like to gratefully acknowledge Dr Issada Thongtrangan, a previous contributor to this topic. IT declares that he has no competing interests.

Peer reviewers

Assistant Professor

Department of Orthopaedics

University of Virginia

Charlottesville

VA

Disclosures

QC declares that he has no competing interests.

Professor of Trauma and Orthopaedic Surgery

University Hospital of North Staffordshire

Keele University School of Medicine

Stoke on Trent

UK

Disclosures

NM is an author of a study referenced in this topic.

References

Our in-house evidence and editorial teams collaborate with international expert contributors and peer reviewers to ensure that we provide access to the most clinically relevant information possible.

Key articles

Bahr R. Can we prevent ankle sprains? In: MacAuley D, Best TM, eds. Evidence-based sports medicine, 14th ed. London: BMJ, 2002:470.

Fong DT, Hong Y, Chan LK, et al. A systematic review on ankle injury and ankle sprain in sports. Sports Med. 2007;37:73-94. Abstract

Noonan TJ, Garrett WE Jr. Muscle strain injury: diagnosis and treatment. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 1999;7:262-269. Abstract

Speer KP, Lohnes J, Garett WE Jr. Radiographic imaging of muscle strain injury. Am J Sports Med. 1993;21:89-95. Abstract

Boutin RD, Fritz RC, Steinbach LS. Imaging of sports-related muscle injuries. Radiol Clin North Am. 2002;40:333-362. Abstract

Wexler RK. The injured ankle. Am Fam Physician. 1998;57:474-480.Full text  Abstract

Vuurberg G, Hoorntje A, Wink LM, et al. Diagnosis, treatment and prevention of ankle sprains: update of an evidence-based clinical guideline. Br J Sports Med. 2018 Aug;52(15):956.Full text  Abstract

Hertel J. The role of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in the treatment of acute soft tissue injuries. J Athl Train. 1997;32:350-358.Full text  Abstract

Reference articles

A full list of sources referenced in this topic is available to users with access to all of BMJ Best Practice.
  • Differentials

    • Fracture
    • Cartilage injury
    More Differentials
  • Guidelines

    • ACR Appropriateness Criteria Acute Trauma to the Ankle
    • Nonpharmacologic and pharmacologic management of acute pain from non–low back, musculoskeletal injuries in adults: a clinical guideline from the American College of Physicians and American Academy of Family Physicians
    More Guidelines
  • Patient information

    Ankle sprain

    More Patient information
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