References
Key articles
Jophlin LL, Singal AK, Bataller R, et al. ACG clinical guideline: alcohol-associated liver disease. Am J Gastroenterol. 2024 Jan 1;119(1):30-54.Full text Abstract
Fontana RJ, Liou I, Reuben A, et al. AASLD practice guidance on drug, herbal, and dietary supplement-induced liver injury. Hepatology. 2022 Jul 27 [Epub ahead of print].Full text Abstract
Bajaj JS, O'Leary JG, Lai JC, et al. Acute-on-chronic liver failure clinical guidelines. Am J Gastroenterol. 2022 Feb 1;117(2):225-52.Full text Abstract
Biggins SW, Angeli P, Garcia-Tsao G, et al. Diagnosis, evaluation, and management of ascites, spontaneous bacterial peritonitis and hepatorenal syndrome: 2021 practice guidance by the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases. Hepatology. 2021 Aug;74(2):1014-48.Full text Abstract
American College of Radiology. ACR appropriateness criteria: jaundice. 2018 [internet publication].Full text
Reference articles
1. Fargo MV, Grogan SP, Saguil A. Evaluation of jaundice in adults. Am Fam Physician. 2017 Feb 1;95(3):164-8.Full text Abstract
2. King D, Armstrong MJ. Overview of Gilbert's syndrome. Drug Ther Bull. 2019 Feb;57(2):27-31. Abstract
3. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The ABCs of hepatitis. 2020 [internet publication].Full text
4. Mantzoukis K, Rodríguez-Perálvarez M, Buzzetti E, et al. Pharmacological interventions for acute hepatitis B infection. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017 Mar 21;(3):CD011645.Full text Abstract
5. World Health Organization. Guidelines for the prevention, care and treatment of persons with chronic hepatitis B infection. Mar 2015 [internet publication].Full text
6. Niederau C, Lange S, Heintges T, et al. Prognosis of chronic hepatitis C: results of a large, prospective cohort study. Hepatology. 1998 Dec;28(6):1687-95.Full text Abstract
7. Chen SL, Morgan TR. The natural history of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. Int J Med Sci. 2006;3(2):47-52.Full text Abstract
8. Spearman CW, Dusheiko GM, Hellard M, et al. Hepatitis C. Lancet. 2019 Oct 19;394(10207):1451-66. Abstract
9. US Preventive Services Task Force; Owens DK, Davidson KW, Krist AH, et al. Screening for hepatitis C virus infection in adolescents and adults: US Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. JAMA. 2020 Mar 10;323(10):970-5.Full text Abstract
10. Teshale EH, Hu DJ, Holmberg SD. The two faces of hepatitis E virus. Clin Infect Dis. 2010 Aug 1;51(3):328-34.Full text Abstract
11. Jilani N, Das BC, Husain SA, et al. Hepatitis E virus infection and fulminant hepatic failure during pregnancy. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2007 May;22(5):676-82. Abstract
12. Poles MA, Lew EA, Dieterich DT. Diagnosis and treatment of hepatic disease in patients with HIV. Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 1997 Jun;26(2):291-321. Abstract
13. Whitty CJ, Chiodini PL, Lalloo DG. Investigation and treatment of imported malaria in non-endemic countries. BMJ. 2013 May 21;346:f2900. Abstract
14. Wuerz T, Kane JB, Boggild AK, et al. A review of amoebic liver abscess for clinicians in a nonendemic setting. Can J Gastroenterol. 2012 Oct;26(10):729-33.Full text Abstract
15. Costa F, Hagan JE, Calcagno J, et al. Global morbidity and mortality of leptospirosis: a systematic review. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2015 Sep 17;9(9):e0003898.Full text Abstract
16. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Leptospirosis: risk of exposure. Jun 2015 [internet publication].Full text
17. De Brito T, Aiello VD, da Silva LF, et al. Human hemorrhagic pulmonary leptospirosis: pathological findings and pathophysiological correlations. PLoS One. 2013 Aug 12;8(8):e71743.Full text Abstract
18. Jophlin LL, Singal AK, Bataller R, et al. ACG clinical guideline: alcohol-associated liver disease. Am J Gastroenterol. 2024 Jan 1;119(1):30-54.Full text Abstract
19. Seitz HK, Bataller R, Cortez-Pinto H, et al. Alcoholic liver disease. Nat Rev Dis Primers. 2018 Aug 16;4(1):16. Abstract
20. Lee WM. Drug-induced acute liver failure. Clin Liver Dis. 2013 Nov;17(4):575-86;viii.Full text Abstract
21. Kullak-Ublick GA, Andrade RJ, Merz M, et al. Drug-induced liver injury: recent advances in diagnosis and risk assessment. Gut. 2017 Jun;66(6):1154-64.Full text Abstract
22. Hoofnagle JH, Björnsson ES. Drug-induced liver injury - types and phenotypes. N Engl J Med. 2019 Jul 18;381(3):264-73. Abstract
23. Fontana RJ, Liou I, Reuben A, et al. AASLD practice guidance on drug, herbal, and dietary supplement-induced liver injury. Hepatology. 2022 Jul 27 [Epub ahead of print].Full text Abstract
24. Chalasani NP, Hayashi PH, Bonkovsky HL, et al. ACG clinical guideline: the diagnosis and management of idiosyncratic drug-induced liver injury. Am J Gastroenterol. 2014 Jul;109(7):950-66; quiz 967.Full text Abstract
25. Björnsson ES, Bergmann OM, Björnsson HK, et al. Incidence, presentation, and outcomes in patients with drug-induced liver injury in the general population of Iceland. Gastroenterology. 2013 Jun;144(7):1419-25, 1425.e1-3; quiz e19-20.Full text Abstract
26. Sgro C, Clinard F, Ouazir K, et al. Incidence of drug-induced hepatic injuries: a French population-based study. Hepatology. 2002 Aug;36(2):451-5.Full text Abstract
27. European Association for the Study of the Liver. EASL clinical practice guidelines: drug-induced liver injury. J Hepatol. 2019 Jun;70(6):1222-61.Full text Abstract
28. Tujios SR, Lee WM. Acute liver failure induced by idiosyncratic reaction to drugs: challenges in diagnosis and therapy. Liver Int. 2018 Jan;38(1):6-14.Full text Abstract
29. Björnsson ES. Drug-induced liver injury due to antibiotics. Scand J Gastroenterol. 2017 Jun-Jul;52(6-7):617-23. Abstract
30. Navarro VJ, Barnhart H, Bonkovsky HL, et al. Liver injury from herbals and dietary supplements in the U.S. Drug-Induced Liver Injury Network. Hepatology. 2014 Oct;60(4):1399-408.Full text Abstract
31. Nichols SD, Albert S, Shirley L, et al. Outcomes in patients with obstructive jaundice from metastatic colorectal cancer and implications for management. J Gastrointest Surg. 2014 Dec;18(12):2186-91.Full text Abstract
32. Waller LP, Deshpande V, Pyrsopoulos N. Hepatocellular carcinoma: a comprehensive review. World J Hepatol. 2015 Nov 18;7(26):2648-63.Full text Abstract
33. Birrer MJ, Young RC. Differential diagnosis of jaundice in lymphoma patients. Semin Liver Dis. 1987 Aug;7(3):269-77. Abstract
34. Selmi C, Bowlus CL, Gershwin ME, et al. Primary biliary cirrhosis. Lancet. 2011 May 7;377(9777):1600-9. Abstract
35. Poupon R. Primary biliary cirrhosis: a 2010 update. J Hepatol. 2010 May;52(5):745-58.Full text Abstract
36. Molodecky NA, Kareemi H, Parab R, et al. Incidence of primary sclerosing cholangitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Hepatology. 2011 May;53(5):1590-9.Full text Abstract
37. European Association for the Study of the Liver. Electronic address: easloffice@easloffice.eu, European Association for the Study of the Liver. EASL clinical practice guidelines on sclerosing cholangitis. J Hepatol. 2022 Sep;77(3):761-806.Full text Abstract
38. Hirschfield GM, Karlsen TH, Lindor KD, et al. Primary sclerosing cholangitis. Lancet. 2013 Nov 9;382(9904):1587-99. Abstract
39. Chapman MH, Thorburn D, Hirschfield GM, et al. British Society of Gastroenterology and UK-PSC guidelines for the diagnosis and management of primary sclerosing cholangitis. Gut. 2019 Aug;68(8):1356-78.Full text Abstract
40. Schilsky ML, Roberts EA, Bronstein JM, et al. A multidisciplinary approach to the diagnosis and management of Wilson disease: executive summary of the 2022 practice guidance on Wilson disease from the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases. Hepatology. 2022 Dec 7.Full text Abstract
41. Patil M, Sheth KA, Krishnamurthy AC, et al. A review and current perspective on Wilson disease. J Clin Exp Hepatol. 2013 Dec;3(4):321-36.Full text Abstract
42. Kowdley KV, Brown KE, Ahn J, et al. ACG clinical guideline: hereditary hemochromatosis. Am J Gastroenterol. 2019 Aug;114(8):1202-18.Full text Abstract
43. Björnsson E, Chari ST, Smyrk TC, et al. Immunoglobulin G4 associated cholangitis: description of an emerging clinical entity based on review of the literature. Hepatology. 2007 Jun;45(6):1547-54.Full text Abstract
44. Schmidt-Hansen M, Berendse S, Hamilton W. Symptoms of pancreatic cancer in primary care: a systematic review. Pancreas. 2016 Jul;45(6):814-8. Abstract
45. National Cancer Institute Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results Program. Cancer stat facts: pancreatic cancer. 2020 [internet publication].Full text
46. National Cancer Institute Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results Program. Cancer stat facts: common cancer sites. 2020 [internet publication].Full text
47. Kubo S, Takemura S, Tanaka S, et al. Occupational cholangiocarcinoma caused by exposure to 1,2-dichloropropane and/or dichloromethane. Ann Gastroenterol Surg. 2017 Nov 17;2(2):99-105.Full text Abstract
48. Kumagai S, Sobue T, Makiuchi T, et al. Relationship between cumulative exposure to 1,2-dichloropropane and incidence risk of cholangiocarcinoma among offset printing workers. Occup Environ Med. 2016 Aug;73(8):545-52. Abstract
49. Duraiswamy S, Sheffield JS, Mcintire D, et al. Updated etiology and significance of elevated bilirubin during pregnancy: changes parallel shift in demographics and vaccination status. Dig Dis Sci. 2017 Feb;62(2):517-25. Abstract
50. European Association for the Study of the Liver. EASL clinical practice guidelines for the management of patients with decompensated cirrhosis. J Hepatol. 2018 Aug;69(2):406-60.Full text Abstract
51. Rumsey S, Winders J, MacCormick AD. Diagnostic accuracy of Charcot's triad: a systematic review. ANZ J Surg. 2017 Apr;87(4):232-8. Abstract
52. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Sepsis: recognition, diagnosis and early management. Jan 2024 [internet publication].Full text
53. Stravitz RT, Lee WM. Acute liver failure. Lancet. 2019 Sep 7;394(10201):869-81. Abstract
54. Nanchal R, Subramanian R, Karvellas CJ, et al. Guidelines for the management of adult acute and acute-on-chronic liver failure in the ICU: cardiovascular, endocrine, hematologic, pulmonary, and renal considerations. Crit Care Med. 2020 Mar;48(3):e173-91.Full text Abstract
55. Karvellas CJ, Cavazos J, Battenhouse H, et al. Effects of antimicrobial prophylaxis and blood stream infections in patients with acute liver failure: a retrospective cohort study. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2014 Nov;12(11):1942-9;e1.Full text Abstract
56. Martin P, DiMartini A, Feng S, et al. Evaluation for liver transplantation in adults: 2013 practice guideline by the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases and the American Society of Transplantation. Hepatology. 2014 Mar;59(3):1144-65.Full text Abstract
57. European Association for the Study of the Liver. EASL clinical practical guidelines on the management of acute (fulminant) liver failure. J Hepatol. 2017 May;66(5):1047-81.Full text Abstract
58. Hernaez R, Solà E, Moreau R, et al. Acute-on-chronic liver failure: an update. Gut. 2017 Mar;66(3):541-53.Full text Abstract
59. Bajaj JS, O'Leary JG, Lai JC, et al. Acute-on-chronic liver failure clinical guidelines. Am J Gastroenterol. 2022 Feb 1;117(2):225-52.Full text Abstract
60. Sarin SK, Choudhury A. Management of acute-on-chronic liver failure: an algorithmic approach. Hepatol Int. 2018 Sep;12(5):402-16. Abstract
61. Fernández J, Acevedo J, Wiest R, et al. Bacterial and fungal infections in acute-on-chronic liver failure: prevalence, characteristics and impact on prognosis. Gut. 2018 Oct;67(10):1870-80. Abstract
62. Bajaj JS, Kamath PS, Reddy KR. The evolving challenge of infections in cirrhosis. N Engl J Med. 2021 Jun 17;384(24):2317-30. Abstract
63. Moreau R, Jalan R, Gines P, et al. Acute-on-chronic liver failure is a distinct syndrome that develops in patients with acute decompensation of cirrhosis. Gastroenterology. 2013 Jun;144(7):1426-37;e1-9.Full text Abstract
64. Jalan R, Saliba F, Pavesi M, et al. Development and validation of a prognostic score to predict mortality in patients with acute-on-chronic liver failure. J Hepatol. 2014 Nov;61(5):1038-47. Abstract
65. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Cirrhosis in over 16s: assessment and management. Sep 2023 [interner publication].Full text
66. British Society of Gastroenterology, British Society for the Study of the Liver. Decompensated cirrhosis care bundle – first 24 hours. 2014 [internet publication].Full text
67. Biggins SW, Angeli P, Garcia-Tsao G, et al. Diagnosis, evaluation, and management of ascites, spontaneous bacterial peritonitis and hepatorenal syndrome: 2021 practice guidance by the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases. Hepatology. 2021 Aug;74(2):1014-48.Full text Abstract
68. Dunn W, Jamil LH, Brown LS, et al. MELD accurately predicts mortality in patients with alcoholic hepatitis. Hepatology. 2005 Feb;41(2):353-8. Abstract
69. Van Melkebeke L, Korf H, Tsochatzis EA, et al. Treatment of severe alcoholic hepatitis: a systematic review. Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2021 Oct;60:91-101. Abstract
70. Pavlov CS, Varganova DL, Casazza G, et al. Glucocorticosteroids for people with alcoholic hepatitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019 Apr 9;(4):CD001511.Full text Abstract
71. Louvet A, Naveau S, Abdelnour M, et al. The Lille model: a new tool for therapeutic strategy in patients with severe alcoholic hepatitis treated with steroids. Hepatology. 2007 Jun;45(6):1348-54.Full text Abstract
72. Garcia-Saenz-de-Sicilia M, Duvoor C, Altamirano J. A day-4 Lille model predicts response to corticosteroids and mortality in severe alcoholic hepatitis. Am J Gastroenterol. 2017 Feb;112(2):306-15. Abstract
73. Thursz MR, Richardson P, Allison M, et al; STOPAH trial. Prednisolone or pentoxifylline for alcoholic hepatitis. N Engl J Med. 2015 Apr 23;372(17):1619-28.Full text Abstract
74. van Lingen R, Warshow U, Dalton HR, et al. Jaundice as a presentation of heart failure. J R Soc Med. 2005 Aug;98(8):357-9.Full text Abstract
75. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Leptospirosis: fact sheet for clinicians. Jan 2018 [internet publication].Full text
76. Bassari R, Koea JB. Jaundice associated pruritis: a review of pathophysiology and treatment. World J Gastroenterol. 2015 Feb 7;21(5):1404-13.Full text Abstract
77. Stillman AE. Jaundice. In: Walker HK, Hall WD, Hurst JW, eds. Clinical methods: the history, physical, and laboratory examinations. 3rd ed. Boston: Butterworths; 1990.Full text
78. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Hepatitis C - questions and answers for health professionals. 2020 [internet publication].Full text
79. Berner MM, Kriston L, Bentele M, et al. The alcohol use disorders identification test for detecting at-risk drinking: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Stud Alcohol Drugs. 2007 May;68(3):461-73. Abstract
80. Crawford EF, Fulton JJ, Swinkels CM, et al. Diagnostic efficiency of the AUDIT-C in US veterans with military service since September 11, 2001. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2013 Sep 1;132(1-2):101-6. Abstract
81. LeFevre ML, US Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for hepatitis B virus infection in nonpregnant adolescents and adults: US Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med. 2014 Jul 1;161(1):58-66.Full text Abstract
82. Vilstrup H, Amodio P, Bajaj J, et al. Hepatic encephalopathy in chronic liver disease: 2014 practice guideline by the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases and the European Association for the Study of the Liver. Hepatology. 2014 Aug;60(2):715-35.Full text Abstract
83. Cohen JA, Kaplan MM. The SGOT/SGPT ratio - an indicator of alcoholic liver disease. Dig Dis Sci. 1979 Nov;24(11):835-8. Abstract
84. Mitchell MC, Friedman LS, McClain CJ. Medical management of severe alcoholic hepatitis: expert review from the Clinical Practice Updates Committee of the AGA Institute. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2017 Jan;15(1):5-12.Full text Abstract
85. Forrest EH, Evans CD, Stewart S, et al. Analysis of factors predictive of mortality in alcoholic hepatitis and derivation and validation of the Glasgow alcoholic hepatitis score. Gut. 2005 Aug;54(8):1174-9.Full text Abstract
86. Singal AK, Bataller R, Ahn J, et al. ACG clinical guideline: alcoholic liver disease. Am J Gastroenterol. 2018 Feb;113(2):175-94.Full text Abstract
87. Biggins SW, Angeli P, Garcia-Tsao G, et al. Diagnosis, evaluation, and management of ascites, spontaneous bacterial peritonitis and hepatorenal syndrome: 2021 practice guidance by the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases. Hepatology. 2021;74(2):1014-48.Full text Abstract
88. European Association for the Study of the Liver. EASL clinical practice guidelines on the management of ascites, spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, and hepatorenal syndrome in cirrhosis. J Hepatol. 2010;53(3):397-417.Full text Abstract
89. Bernardi M, Caraceni P, Navickis RJ, et al. Albumin infusion in patients undergoing large-volume paracentesis: a meta-analysis of randomized trials. Hepatology. 2012 Apr;55(4):1172-81.Full text Abstract
90. Aithal GP, Palaniyappan N, China L, et al. Guidelines on the management of ascites in cirrhosis. Gut. 2021 Jan;70(1):9-29.Full text Abstract
91. Rimola A, Garcia-Tsao G, Navasa M, et al. Diagnosis, treatment and prophylaxis of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis: a consensus document. J Hepatol. 2000 Jan;32(1):142-53. Abstract
92. American College of Radiology. ACR appropriateness criteria: jaundice. 2018 [internet publication].Full text
93. Vogel A, Bridgewater J, Edeline J, et al. Biliary tract cancer: ESMO clinical practice guideline for diagnosis, treatment and follow-up. Ann Oncol. 2023 Feb;34(2):127-40.Full text Abstract
94. Kolodziejczyk E, Jurkiewicz E, Pertkiewicz J, et al. MRCP versus ERCP in the evaluation of chronic pancreatitis in children: which is the better choice? Pancreas. 2016 Sep;45(8):1115-9. Abstract
95. Scaffidi MG, Luigiano C, Consolo P, et al. Magnetic resonance cholangio-pancreatography versus endoscopic retrograde cholangio-pancreatography in the diagnosis of common bile duct stones: a prospective comparative study. Minerva Med. 2009 Oct;100(5):341-8. Abstract
96. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pancreatic cancer in adults: diagnosis and management. Feb 2018 [internet publication].Full text
97. Bowlus CL, Arrivé L, Bergquist A, et al. AASLD practice guidance on primary sclerosing cholangitis and cholangiocarcinoma. Hepatology. 2023 Feb 1;77(2):659-702.Full text Abstract
98. Elmunzer BJ, Maranki JL, Gómez V, et al. ACG clinical guideline: diagnosis and management of biliary strictures. Am J Gastroenterol. 2023 Mar 1;118(3):405-26.Full text Abstract
99. Manes G, Paspatis G, Aabakken L, et al. Endoscopic management of common bile duct stones: European Society of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (ESGE) guideline. Endoscopy. 2019 May;51(5):472-91.Full text Abstract
100. Whitfield JB, Masson S, Liangpunsakul S, et al. Evaluation of laboratory tests for cirrhosis and for alcohol use, in the context of alcoholic cirrhosis. Alcohol. 2018 Feb;66:1-7.Full text Abstract
101. McMahon BJ, Alward WL, Hall DB, et al. Acute hepatitis B virus infection: relation of age to the clinical expression of disease and subsequent development of the carrier state. J Infect Dis. 1985 Apr;151(4):599-603. Abstract
102. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Suspected cancer: recognition and referral. Oct 2023 [internet publication].Full text
103. O'Grady JG, Alexander GJ, Hayllar KM, et al. Early indicators of prognosis in fulminant hepatic failure. Gastroenterology. 1989 Aug;97(2):439-45.Full text Abstract
104. Korman JD, Volenberg I, Balko J, et al. Screening for Wilson disease in acute liver failure: a comparison of currently available diagnostic tests. Hepatology. 2008 Oct;48(4):1167-74. Abstract
Use of this content is subject to our disclaimer