Personality disorders

American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 5th ed, text revision (DSM-5-TR). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2022.Full text

Cristea IA, Gentili C, Cotet CD, et al. Efficacy of psychotherapies for borderline personality disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry. 2017 Apr 1;74(4):319-28.Full text  Abstract

Storebø OJ, Stoffers-Winterling JM, Völlm BA, et al. Psychological therapies for people with borderline personality disorder. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020 May 4;5:CD012955.Full text  Abstract

Abbass AA, Kisely SR, Town JM, et al. Short-term psychodynamic psychotherapies for common mental disorders. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014 Jul 1;(7):CD004687.Full text  Abstract

Herpertz SC, Zanarini M, Schulz CS, et al. World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry (WFSBP) guidelines for biological treatment of personality disorders. World J Biol Psychiatry. 2007;8(4):212-44.Full text  Abstract

1. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 5th ed, text revision (DSM-5-TR). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2022.Full text

2. Bajaj P, Tyrer P. Managing mood disorders and comorbid personality disorders. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2005 Jan;18(1):27-31. Abstract

3. Gunderson J, Weinberg I, Daversa M, et al. Descriptive and longitudinal observations on the relationship of borderline personality disorder and bipolar disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2006 Jul;163(7):1173-8. Abstract

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6. Samuels J, Eaton WW, Bienvenu OJ 3rd, et al. Prevalence and correlates of personality disorders in a community sample. Br J Psychiatry. 2002 Jun;180(6):536-42.Full text  Abstract

7. Crawford T, Cohen P, Johnson J, et al. Self-reported personality disorder in the children in the community sample: convergent and prospective validity in late adolescence and adulthood. J Pers Disord. 2005 Feb;19(1):30-52. Abstract

8. Grant B, Hasin D, Stinson F, et al. Prevalence, correlates, and disability of personality disorders in the United States: results from the national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions. J Clin Psychiatry. 2004 Jul;65(7):948-58. Abstract

9. Trull TJ, Jahng S, Tomko RL, et al. Revised NESARC personality disorder diagnoses: gender, prevalence, and comorbidity with substance dependence disorders. J Pers Disord. 2010 Aug;24(4):412-26.Full text  Abstract

10. Volkert J, Gablonski TC, Rabung S. Prevalence of personality disorders in the general adult population in Western countries: systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry. 2018 Dec;213(6):709-15.Full text  Abstract

11. Lenzenweger MF, Lane MC, Loranger AW, et al. DSM-IV personality disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Biol Psychiatry. 2007 Sep 15;62(6):553-64.Full text  Abstract

12. Torgersen S, Kringlen E, Cramer V. The prevalence of personality disorders in a community sample. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2001 Jun;58(6):590-6.Full text  Abstract

13. Coid J, Yang M, Tyrer P, et al. Prevalence and correlates of personality disorder in Great Britain. Br J Psychiatry. 2006 May;188(5):423-31.Full text  Abstract

14. McGilloway A, Hall RE, Lee T, et al. A systematic review of personality disorder, race and ethnicity: prevalence, aetiology and treatment. BMC Psychiatry. 2010 May 11;10:33.Full text  Abstract

15. Reichborn-Kjennerud T. Genetics of personality disorders. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 2008 Sep;31(3):421-40. Abstract

16. Rhee S, Waldman I. Genetic and environmental influences on antisocial behavior: a meta-analysis of twin and adoption studies. Psychol Bull. 2002 May;128(3):490-529. Abstract

17. Torgersen S, Lygren S, Oien PA, et al. A twin study of personality disorders. Compr Psychiatry. 2000 Nov-Dec;41(6):416-25. Abstract

18. Bradley R, Jenei J, Westen D. Etiology of borderline personality disorder: disentangling the contributions of intercorrelated antecedents. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2005 Jan;193(1):24-31. Abstract

19. Coolidge F, Thede L, Jang K. Heritability of personality disorders in childhood: a preliminary investigation. J Pers Disord. 2001 Feb;15(1):33-40. Abstract

20. Reichborn-Kjennerud T, Czajkowski N, Neale MC, et al. Genetic and environmental influences on dimensional representations of DSM-IV cluster C personality disorders: a population-based multivariate twin study. Psychol Med. 2007 May;37(5):645-53. Abstract

21. Reichborn-Kjennerud T, Czajkowski N, Ystrøm E, et al. A longitudinal twin study of borderline and antisocial personality disorder traits in early to middle adulthood. Psychol Med. 2015 Oct;45(14):3121-31.Full text  Abstract

22. Kaffman A, Meaney MJ. Neurodevelopmental sequelae of postnatal maternal care in rodents: clinical and research implications of molecular insights. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2007 Mar-Apr;48(3-4):224-44. Abstract

23. Martín-Blanco A, Ferrer M, Soler J, et al. The role of hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal genes and childhood trauma in borderline personality disorder. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2016 Jun;266(4):307-16. Abstract

24. Essex MJ, Klein MH, Cho E, et al. Maternal stress beginning in infancy may sensitize children to later stress exposure: effects on cortisol and behavior. Biol Psychiatry. 2002 Oct 15;52(8):776-84. Abstract

25. Winsper C, Wolke D, Lereya T. Prospective associations between prenatal adversities and borderline personality disorder at 11-12 years. Psychol Med. 2015 Apr;45(5):1025-37. Abstract

26. Johnson JG, Cohen P, Brown J, et al. Childhood maltreatment increases risk for personality disorders during early adulthood. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1999 Jul;56(7):600-6.Full text  Abstract

27. Eikenaes I, Egeland J, Hummelen B, et al. Avoidant personality disorder versus social phobia: the significance of childhood neglect. PLoS One. 2015 Mar 27;10(3):e0122846.Full text  Abstract

28. Spatz Widom C, Czaja SJ, Paris J. A prospective investigation of borderline personality disorder in abused and neglected children followed up into adulthood. J Pers Disord. 2009 Oct;23(5):433-46. Abstract

29. Jang K, Dick D, Wolf H, et al. Psychosocial adversity and emotional instability: an application of gene-environment interaction models. Eur J Pers. 2005 Jun;19(4):359-72.Full text

30. Brent DA, Melhem N. Familial transmission of suicidal behavior. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 2008 Jun;31(2):157-77.Full text  Abstract

31. Mittal VA, Dhruv S, Tessner KD, et al. The relations among putative biorisk markers in schizotypal adolescents: minor physical anomalies, movement abnormalities, and salivary cortisol. Biol Psychiatry. 2007 May 15;61(10):1179-86. Abstract

32. New AS, Goodman M, Tribwasser J, et al. Recent advances in the biological study of personality disorders. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 2008 Sep;31(3):441-61,vii. Abstract

33. Johnson PA, Hurley RA, Benkelfat C, et al. Understanding emotion regulation in borderline personality disorder: contributions of neuroimaging. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2003 Fall;15(4):397-402.Full text  Abstract

34. Friedel RO. Dopamine dysfunction in borderline personality disorder: a hypothesis. Neuropsychopharmacol. 2004 Jun;29(6):1029-39.Full text  Abstract

35. Herpertz SC, Bertsch K. A new perspective on the pathophysiology of borderline personality disorder: a model of the role of oxytocin. Am J Psychiatry. 2015 Sep 1;172(9):840-51.Full text  Abstract

36. Bertsch K, Schmidinger I, Neumann ID, et al. Reduced plasma oxytocin levels in female patients with borderline personality disorder. Horm Behav. 2013 Mar;63(3):424-9. Abstract

37. Kendler K, Czajkowski N, Tambs K, et al. Dimensional representations of DSM-IV Cluster A personality disorders in a population-based sample of Norwegian twins: a multivariate study. Psychol Med. 2006 Nov;36(11):1583-91. Abstract

38. Tienari P, Wynne LC, Läksy K, et al. Genetic boundaries of the schizophrenia spectrum: evidence from the Finnish Adoptive Family Study of Schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 2003 Sep;160(9):1587-94.Full text  Abstract

39. Johnson JG, Cohen P, Chen H, et al. Parenting behaviors associated with risk for offspring personality disorder during adulthood. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2006 May;63(5):579-87.Full text  Abstract

40. Helgeland MI, Kjelsberg E, Torgersen S. Continuities between emotional and disruptive behavior disorders in adolescence and personality disorders in adulthood. Am J Psychiatry. 2005 Oct;162(10):1941-7.Full text  Abstract

41. Hahn SR, Thompson KS, Wills TA, et al. The difficult doctor-patient relationship: somatization, personality and psychopathology. J Clin Epidemiol. 1994 Jun;47(6):647-57. Abstract

42. Rost KM, Akins RN, Brown FW, et al. The comorbidity of DSM-III-R personality disorders in somatization disorder. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 1992 Sep;14(5):322-6. Abstract

43. Joiner T, Kalafat J, Draper J, et al. Establishing standards for the assessment of suicide risk among callers to the National Suicide Prevention Lifeline. Suicide Life Threat Behav. 2007 Jun;37(3):353-65.Full text  Abstract

44. Moran P, Leese M, Lee T, et al. Standardised Assessment of Personality - Abbreviated Scale (SAPAS): preliminary validation of a brief screen for personality disorder. Br J Psychiatry. 2003 Sep;183:228-32.Full text  Abstract

45. Hesse M, Moran P. Screening for personality disorder with the Standardised Assessment of Personality - Abbreviated Scale (SAPAS): further evidence of concurrent validity. BMC Psychiatry. 2010 Jan 28;10:10.Full text  Abstract

46. Gorwood P, Rouillon F, Even C, et al. Treatment response in major depression: effects of personality dysfunction and prior depression. Br J Psychiatry. 2010 Feb;196(2):139-42.Full text  Abstract

47. Morse JQ, Pilkonis PA. Screening for personality disorders. J Pers Disord. 2007 Apr;21(2):179-98.Full text  Abstract

48. Walters P, Moran P, Choudhury P, et al. Screening for personality disorder: a comparison of personality disorder assessment by patients and informants. Int J Methods Psychiatr Res. 2004;13(1):34-9.Full text  Abstract

49. Spitzer RL, Williams JB, Kroenke K, et al. Utility of a new procedure for diagnosing mental disorders in primary care: the PRIME-MD 1000 study. JAMA. 1994 Dec 14;272(22):1749-56. Abstract

50. Kroenke K, Spitzer RL, Williams JB. The PHQ-9: validity of a brief depression severity measure. J Gen Intern Med. 2001 Sep;16(9):606-13.Full text  Abstract

51. Kroenke K, Spitzer RL, Williams JB, et al. Anxiety disorders in primary care: prevalence, impairment, comorbidity, and detection. Ann Intern Med. 2007 Mar 6;146(5):317-25. Abstract

52. Spitzer RL, Kroenke K, Williams JB, et al. A brief measure for assessing generalized anxiety disorder: the GAD-7. Arch Intern Med. 2006 May 22;166(10):1092-7.Full text  Abstract

53. Hirschfeld RM, Williams JB, Spitzer RL, et al. Development and validation of a screening instrument for bipolar spectrum disorder: the Mood Disorder Questionnaire. Am J Psychiatry. 2000 Nov;157(11):1873-5.Full text  Abstract

54. LeFevre ML; US Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for suicide risk in adolescents, adults, and older adults in primary care: US Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med. 2014 May 20;160(10):719-26.Full text  Abstract

55. Whitlock EP, Polen MR, Green CA, et al. Behavioral counseling interventions in primary care to reduce risky/harmful alcohol use by adults: a summary of the evidence for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med. 2004 Apr 6;140(7):557-68.Full text  Abstract

56. Balint M. The doctor, his patient, and the illness. New York, NY: International Universities Press; 1957.

57. Devens M. Personality disorders. Prim Care. 2007 Sep;34(3):623-40. Abstract

58. Zaheer J, Links PS, Liu E. Assessment and emergency management of suicidality in personality disorders. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 2008 Sep;31(3):527-43. Abstract

59. Soloff PH, Lynch KG, Kelly TM, et al. Characteristics of suicide attempts of patients with major depressive episode and borderline personality disorder: a comparative study. Am J Psychiatry. 2000 Apr;157(4):601-8.Full text  Abstract

60. Apter A, Bleich A, King RA, et al. Death without warning? A clinical postmortem study of suicide in 43 Israeli adolescent males. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1993 Feb;50(2):138-42. Abstract

61. Fenton WS, McGlashan TH, Victor BJ, et al. Symptoms, subtype and suicidality in patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Am J Psychiatry. 1997 Feb;154(2):199-204. Abstract

62. Duggan C, Huband N, Smailagic N, et al. The use of psychological treatments for people with personality disorder: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Pers Ment Health. 2007 Nov;1(2):95-125.Full text

63. Paris J. Clinical trials of treatment for personality disorders. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 2008 Sep;31(3):517-26. Abstract

64. Gunderson JG. Clinical practice. Borderline personality disorder. N Engl J Med. 2011 May 26;364(21):2037-42. Abstract

65. Cristea IA, Gentili C, Cotet CD, et al. Efficacy of psychotherapies for borderline personality disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry. 2017 Apr 1;74(4):319-28.Full text  Abstract

66. Storebø OJ, Stoffers-Winterling JM, Völlm BA, et al. Psychological therapies for people with borderline personality disorder. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020 May 4;5:CD012955.Full text  Abstract

67. Gibbon S, Khalifa NR, Cheung NH, et al. Psychological interventions for antisocial personality disorder. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020 Sep 3;9:CD007668.Full text  Abstract

68. Armelius BA, Andreassen TH. Cognitive-behavioral treatment for antisocial behavior in youth in residential treatment. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007 Oct 17;(4):CD005650.Full text  Abstract

69. Simon W. Follow-up psychotherapy outcome of patients with dependent, avoidant and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders: a meta-analytic review. Int J Psychiatry Clin Pract. 2009;13(2):153-65. Abstract

70. Abbass AA, Kisely SR, Town JM, et al. Short-term psychodynamic psychotherapies for common mental disorders. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014 Jul 1;(7):CD004687.Full text  Abstract

71. Dimeff LA, Koerner K, eds. Dialectical behavior therapy in clinical practice. New York, NY: The Guilford Press; 2007.

72. Duggan C, Huband N, Smailagic N, et al. The use of pharmacological treatments for people with personality disorder: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Pers Ment Health. 2008 Jul;2(3):119-70.Full text

73. Bateman AW, Gunderson J, Mulder R, et al. Treatment of personality disorder. Lancet. 2015 Feb 21;385(9969):735-43. Abstract

74. Zanarini MC, Frankenburg FR, Hennen J, et al. Axis I comorbidity in patients with borderline personality disorder: 6-year follow-up and prediction of time to remission. Am J Psychiatry. 2004 Nov;161(11):2108-14.Full text  Abstract

75. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Borderline personality disorder: recognition and management. Jan 2009 [internet publication].Full text

76. Goldberg SC, Schulz SC, Schulz PM, et al. Borderline and schizotypal personality disorders treated with low-dose thiothixene vs placebo. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1986 Jul;43(7):680-6. Abstract

77. Koenigsberg HW, Reynolds D, Goodman M, et al. Risperidone in the treatment of schizotypal personality disorder. J Clinical Psychiatry. 2003 Jun;64(6):628-34. Abstract

78. Soloff PH, George A, Nathan RS, et al. Progress in pharmacotherapy of borderline disorders. A double-blind study of amitriptyline, haloperidol, and placebo. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1986 Jul;43(7):691-7. Abstract

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80. Markovitz PJ, Calabrese JR, Schulz SC, et al. Fluoxetine in the treatment of borderline and schizotypal personality disorders. Am J Psychiatry. 1991 Aug;148(8):1064-7. Abstract

81. Jensen HV, Andersen J. An open, noncomparative study of amoxapine in borderline disorders. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 1989 Jan;79(1):89-93. Abstract

82. Mercer D, Douglass AB, Links PS, et al. Meta-analyses of mood stabilizers, antidepressants and antipsychotics in the treatment of borderline personality disorder: effectiveness for depression and anger symptoms. J Pers Disord. 2009 Apr;23(2):156-74. Abstract

83. Ingenhoven T, Lafay P, Rinne T, et al. Effectiveness of pharmacotherapy for severe personality disorders: meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials. J Clin Psychiatry. 2010 Jan;71(1):14-25. Abstract

84. Crawford MJ, Sanatinia R, Barrett B, et al. Lamotrigine for people with borderline personality disorder: a RCT. Health Technol Assess. 2018 Apr;22(17):1-68.Full text  Abstract

85. Khalifa NR, Gibbon S, Völlm BA, et al. Pharmacological interventions for antisocial personality disorder. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020 Sep 3;9:CD007667.Full text  Abstract

86. Sheard MH, Marini JL, Bridges CI, et al. The effect of lithium on impulsive aggressive behavior in man. Am J Psychiatry. 1976 Dec;133(12):1409-13. Abstract

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88. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Antisocial personality disorder: prevention and management. Mar 2013 [internet publication].Full text

89. Loranger AW, Sartorius N, Andreoli A, et al. The International Personality Disorder Examination. The World Health Organization/Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration international pilot study of personality disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1994 Mar;51(3):215-24. Abstract

90. Alden LE, Laposa JM, Taylor CT, et al. Avoidant personality disorder: current status and future directions. J Pers Disord. 2002 Feb;16(1):1-29. Abstract

91. Herpertz SC, Zanarini M, Schulz CS, et al. World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry (WFSBP) guidelines for biological treatment of personality disorders. World J Biol Psychiatry. 2007;8(4):212-44.Full text  Abstract

92. Van Ameringen MA, Lane RM, WAlker JR, et al. Sertraline treatment of generalized social phobia: a 20-week, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Am J Psychiatry. 2001 Feb;158(2):275-81.Full text  Abstract

93. Pande AC, Feltner DE, Jefferson JW, et al. Efficacy of the novel anxiolytic pregabalin in social anxiety disorder: a placebo-controlled, multicenter study. J Clinical Psychopharmacol. 2004 Apr;24(2):141-9. Abstract

94. Pande AC, Davidson JR, Jefferson JW, et al. Treatment of social phobia with gabapentin: a placebo-controlled study. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1999 Aug;19(4):341-8. Abstract

95. Soloff PH. Symptom-oriented psychopharmacology for personality disorders. J Psych Prac. 1998 Jan;4(1):3-11.Full text

96. Soloff PH. Algorithms for pharmacological treatment of personality dimensions: symptom-specific treatments for cognitive-perceptual, affective, and impulse-behavioral dysregulation. Bull Menninger Clin. 1998 Spring;62(2):195-214. Abstract

97. Ripoll LH. Clinical psychopharmacology of borderline personality disorder: an update on the available evidence in light of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders - 5. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2012 Jan;25(1):52-8. Abstract

98. Bellino S, Bozzatello P, Blandamura A, et al. Antidepressants in the treatment of borderline personality disorder: a review of literature data [in Italian]. J Psychopathol. 2009;15(2):163-76.Full text

99. Kleber HD, Weiss RD, Anton RF Jr, et al; Work Group on Substance Use Disorders. Treatment of patients with substance use disorders: second edition. Am J Psychiatry. 2006 Aug;163(8 Suppl):5-82. Abstract

100. Rudd MD, Mandrusiak M, Joiner Jr TE. The case against no-suicide contracts: the commitment to treatment statement as a practice alternative. J Clin Psychol. 2006 Feb;62(2):243-51. Abstract

101. European Medicines Agency. New measures to avoid valproate exposure in pregnancy endorsed. Mar 2018 [internet publication].Full text

102. Gibbon S, Duggan C, Stoffers J, et al. Psychological interventions for antisocial personality disorder. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010 Jun 16;(6):CD007668.Full text  Abstract

103. Van Ameringen MA, Lane RM, WAlker JR, et al. Sertraline treatment of generalized social phobia: a 20-week, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Am J Psychiatry. 2001 Feb;158(2):275-81. Abstract

104. Reyes-López J, Ricardo-Garcell J, Armas-Castañeda G, et al. Clinical improvement in patients with borderline personality disorder after treatment with repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation: preliminary results. Braz J Psychiatry. 2018 Jan-Mar;40(1):97-104.Full text  Abstract

105. Schulze L, Grove M, Tamm S, et al. Effects of transcranial direct current stimulation on the cognitive control of negative stimuli in borderline personality disorder. Sci Rep. 2019 Jan 23;9(1):332.Full text  Abstract

106. Zanarini MC, Frankenburg FR, Hennen J, et al. Prediction of the 10-year course of borderline personality disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2006 May;163(5):827-32.Full text  Abstract

107. Bateman A, Fonagy P. Effectiveness of partial hospitalization in the treatment of borderline personality disorder: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Psychiatry. 1999 Oct;156(10):1563-9.Full text  Abstract

108. Gunderson JG, Stout RL, McGlashan TH, et al. Ten-year course of borderline personality disorder: psychopathology and function from the Collaborative Longitudinal Personality Disorders study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2011 Aug;68(8):827-37.Full text  Abstract

109. Soloff PH, Fabio A, Kelly TM, et al. High-lethality status in patients with borderline personality disorder. J Pers Disord. 2005 Aug;19(4):386-99. Abstract

110. Oldham JM. Borderline personality disorder and suicidality. Am J Psychiatry. 2006 Jan;163(1):20-6.Full text  Abstract

111. McMain S. Effectiveness of psychosocial treatments on suicidality in personality disorders. Can J Psychiatry. 2007 Jun;52(6 Suppl 1):103S-14S. Abstract