Toxic shock syndrome

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Streptococcal toxic shock syndrome (STSS): 2010 case definition. 2010 [internet publication].​Full text

Evans L, Rhodes A, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving sepsis campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock 2021. Crit Care Med. 2021 Nov 1;49(11):e1063-143.Full text  Abstract

Stevens DL, Bisno AL, Chambers HF, et al. Practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of skin and soft tissue infections: 2014 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2014 Jul 15;59(2):e10-52.Full text  Abstract

Sartelli M, Guirao X, Hardcastle TC, et al. 2018 WSES/SIS-E consensus conference: recommendations for the management of skin and soft-tissue infections. World J Emerg Surg. 2018;13:58.Full text  Abstract

1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Working Group on Severe Streptococcal Infections. Defining the group A streptococcal toxic shock syndrome: rationale and consensus definition. JAMA. 1993 Jan 20;269(3):390-1. Abstract

2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Streptococcal toxic shock syndrome (STSS): 2010 case definition. 2010 [internet publication].​Full text

3. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Toxic shock syndrome (other than streptococcal ) (TSS): 2011 case definition. Apr 2021 [internet publication]​.Full text

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5. Kotler DP, Sandkovsky U, Schlievert PM, et al. Toxic shock-like syndrome associated with staphylococcal enterocolitis in an HIV-infected man. Clin Infect Dis. 2007 Jun 15;44(12):e121-3.Full text  Abstract

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10. Gnann JW Jr. Varicella-zoster virus: atypical presentations and unusual complications. J Infect Dis. 2002 Oct 15;186(suppl 1):S91-S98.Full text  Abstract

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12. Davis JP, Osterholm MT, Helms CM, et al. Tri-state toxic-shock syndrome study: clinical and laboratory findings. J Infect Dis. 1982 Apr;145(4):441-8. Abstract

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15. Andrews M, Parent EM, Barry M, et al. Recurrent nonmenstrual toxic shock syndrome: clinical manifestations, diagnosis, and treatment. Clin Infect Dis. 2001 May 15;32(10):1470-9. Abstract

16. Stolz SJ, Davis JP, Vergeront JM, et al. Development of serum antibody to toxic shock toxin among individuals with toxic shock syndrome in Wisconsin. J Infect Dis. 1985 May;151(5):883-9. Abstract

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19. Berger S, Kunerl A, Wasmuth S, et al. Menstrual toxic shock syndrome: case report and systematic review of the literature. Lancet Infect Dis. 2019 Sep;19(9):e313-21. Abstract

20. Sharma H, Smith D, Turner CE, et al. Clinical and molecular epidemiology of staphylococcal toxic shock syndrome in the United Kingdom. Emerg Infect Dis. 2018 Feb;24(2).Full text  Abstract

21. Hajjeh RA, Reingold A, Weil A, et al. Toxic shock syndrome in the United States: surveillance update, 1979-1996. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999 Nov-Dec;5(6):807-10.Full text  Abstract

22. Gaventa S, Reingold AL, Hightower AW, et al. Active surveillance for toxic shock syndrome in the United States, 1986. Rev Infect Dis. 1989 Jan-Feb;11(1 Suppl):S28-34.Full text  Abstract

23. Schwartz B, Gaventa S, Broome CV, et al. Nonmenstrual toxic shock syndrome associated with barrier contraceptives: report of a case-control study. Rev Infect Dis. 1989 Jan-Feb;11(1 Suppl):S43-8. Abstract

24. Durand G, Bes M, Meugnier H, et al. Detection of new methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus clones containing the toxic shock syndrome toxin 1 gene responsible for hospital- and community-acquired infections in France. J Clin Microbiol. 2006 Mar;44(3):847-53.Full text  Abstract

25. Fey PD, Said-Salim B, Rupp ME, et al. Comparative molecular analysis of community- or hospital-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2003 Jan;47(1):196-203.Full text  Abstract

26. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Group A streptococcal (GAS) disease. Jun 2022 [internet publication].Full text

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28. UK Health Security Agency. Group A streptococcal infections: activity during the 2022 to 2023 season. Apr 2023 [internet publication].Full text

29. Adams DA, Thomas KR, Jajosky RA, et al. Summary of notifiable infectious diseases and conditions - United States, 2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2016 Oct 14;63(54):1-152.Full text  Abstract

30. Gottlieb M, Long B, Koyfman A. The evaluation and management of toxic shock syndrome in the emergency department: a review of the literature. J Emerg Med. 2018 Jun;54(6):807-14. Abstract

31. Adebanjo T, Apostol M, Alden N, et al. Evaluating household transmission of invasive group A streptococcus disease in the United States using population-based surveillance data, 2013-2016. Clin Infect Dis. 2020 Mar 17;70(7):1478-81.Full text  Abstract

32. Schwartz B, Facklam RR, Brieman RF. Changing epidemiology of group A streptococcal infection in the USA. Lancet. 1990 Nov 10;336(8724):1167-71. Abstract

33. Davies HD, McGeer A, Schwartz B, et al. Invasive group A streptococcal infections in Ontario, Canada. N Engl J Med. 1996 Aug 22;335(8):547-54.Full text  Abstract

34. Demers B, Simor AE, Vellend H, et al. Severe invasive group A streptococcal infections in Ontario, Canada: 1987-1991. Clin Infect Dis. 1993 Jun;16(6):792-800. Abstract

35. O'Brien KL, Levine OS, Schwartz B. The changing epidemiology of group A streptococcus infections. Semin Pediatr Infect Dis. 1997;8:10-16.

36. Schwartz B, Elliot JA, Butler JC, et al. Clusters of invasive group A streptococcal infections in family, hospital, and nursing home settings. Clin Infect Dis. 1992 Aug;15(2):277-84. Abstract

37. Kakis A, Gibbs L, Eguia J, et al. An outbreak of group A streptococcal infection among health care workers. Clin Infect Dis. 2002 Dec 1;35(11):1353-9.Full text  Abstract

38. Auerbach SB, Schwartz B, Williams D, et al. Outbreak of invasive group A streptococcal infections in a nursing home: lessons on prevention and control. Arch Intern Med. 1992 May;152(5):1017-22. Abstract

39. Hohenboken JJ, Anderson F, Kaplan EL. Invasive group A streptococcal (GAS) serotype M-1 outbreak in a long-term care facility (LTCF) with mortality. Paper presented at: 34th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy; 1994; Orlando, FL.

40. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Nosocomial group A streptococcal infections associated with asymptomatic health-care workers: Maryland and California, 1997. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1999 Mar 5;48(8):163-6.Full text  Abstract

41. Stevens DL. Invasive group A streptococcus infections. Clin Infect Dis. 1992 Jan;14(1):2-11. Abstract

42. Tang WM, Ho PL, Yau WP, et al. Report of two fatal cases of adult necrotizing fasciitis and toxic shock syndrome caused by Streptococcus agalactiae. Clin Infect Dis. 2000 Oct;31(4):E15-7.Full text  Abstract

43. Kotb M. Bacterial pyrogenic exotoxins as superantigens. Clin Microbiol Rev. 1995 Jul;8(3):411-26.Full text  Abstract

44. Norrby-Teglund A, Thulin P, Gan BS, et al. Evidence for superantigen involvement in severe group A streptococcal tissue infections. J Infect Dis. 2001 Oct 1;184(7):853-60.Full text  Abstract

45. Stevens DL, Bryant AE, Hackett SP, et al. Group A streptococcal bacteremia: the role of tumor necrosis factor in shock and organ failure. J Infect Dis. 1996 Mar;173(3):619-26. Abstract

46. Gaworzewska ET, Coleman G. Correspondence: group A streptococcal infections and a toxic shock-like syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1989;321:1546.

47. Stegmayr B, Bjorck S, Holm S, et al. Septic shock induced by group A streptococcal infections: clinical and therapeutic aspects. Scand J Infect Dis. 1992;24(5):589-97. Abstract

48. Holm SE, Norrby A, Bergholm AM, et al. Aspects of pathogenesis of serious group A streptococcal infections in Sweden, 1988-1989. J Infect Dis. 1992 Jul;166(1):31-7. Abstract

49. Eriksson BK, Andersson J, Holm SE, et al. Invasive group A streptococcal infections: T1M1 isolates expressing pyrogenic exotoxins A and B in combination with selective lack of toxin-neutralizing antibodies are associated with increased risk of streptococcal toxic shock syndrome. J Infect Dis. 1999 Aug;180(2):410-8.Full text  Abstract

50. Norrby-Teglund A, Newton D, Kotb M, et al. Superantigenic properties of the group A streptococcal exotoxin SpeF (MF). Infect Immun. 1994 Dec;62(12):5227-33.Full text  Abstract

51. Norrby-Teglund A, Kotb M. Host-microbe interactions in the pathogenesis of invasive group A streptococcal infections. J Med Microbiol. 2000 Oct;49(10):849-52.Full text  Abstract

52. Kaul R, McGeer A, Low DE, et al. Population-based surveillance for group A streptococcal necrotizing fasciitis: clinical features, prognostic indicators, and microbiological analysis of seventy-seven cases. Am J Med. 1997 Jul;103(1):18-24. Abstract

53. Barry W, Hudgins L, Donta ST, et al. Intravenous immunoglobulin therapy for toxic shock syndrome. JAMA. 1992 Jun 24;267(24):3315-6. Abstract

54. Basma H, Norrby-Teglund A, Guedez Y, et al. Risk factors in the pathogenesis of invasive group A streptococcal infections: role of protective humoral immunity. Infect Immun. 1999 Apr;67(4):1871-7.Full text  Abstract

55. Ato M, Ikebe T, Kawataba H, et al. Incompetence of neutrophils to invasive group A streptococcus is attributed to induction of plural virulence factors by dysfunction of a regulator. PLoS ONE. 2008;3(10):e3455.Full text  Abstract

56. Kikuchi K, Takahashi N, Piao C, et al. Molecular epidemiology of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains causing neonatal toxic shock syndrome-like exanthematous disease in neonatal and perinatal wards. J Clin Microbiol. 2003 Jul;41(7):3001-6.Full text  Abstract

57. van der Mee-Marquet N, Lina G, Quentin R, et al. Staphylococcal exanthematous disease in a newborn due to a virulent methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strain containing the TSST-1 gene in Europe: an alert for neonatologists. J Clin Microbiol. 2003 Oct;41(10):4883-4.Full text  Abstract

58. De Boer ML, Kum WW, Pang LT, et al. Co-production of staphylococcal enterotoxin A with toxic shock syndrome toxin-1 (TSST-1) enhances TSST-1 mediated mortality in a D-galactosamine sensitized mouse model of lethal shock. Microb Pathog. 1999 Aug;27(2):61-70. Abstract

59. Lehn N, Schaller E, Wagner H, et al. Frequency of toxic shock syndrome toxin- and enterotoxin-producing clinical isolates of Staphylococcus aureus. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1995 Jan;14(1):43-6. Abstract

60. Parsonnet J, Hansmann MA, Delaney ML, et al. Prevalence of toxic shock syndrome toxin-1 producing Staphylococcus aureus and the presence of antibodies to this superantigen in menstruating women. J Clin Microbiol. 2005 Sep;43(9):4628-34.Full text  Abstract

61. Bonventre PF, Thompson MR, Adinolfi LE, et al. Neutralization of toxic shock syndrome toxin-1 by monoclonal antibodies in vitro and in vivo. Infect Immun. 1988 Jan;56(1):135-41.Full text  Abstract

62. O'Brien KL, Beall B, Barrett NL, et al. Epidemiology of invasive group A streptococcus disease in the United States, 1995-1999. Clin Infect Dis. 2002 Aug 1;35(3):268-76.Full text  Abstract

63. Stevens DL, Tanner MH, Winship J, et al. Severe group A streptococcal infections associated with a shock-like syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1989 Jul 6;321(1):1-7. Abstract

64. Stevens DL. Streptococcal toxic-shock syndrome: spectrum of disease, pathogenesis, and new concepts in treatment. Emerg Infect Dis. 1995 Jul-Sep;1(3):69-78.Full text  Abstract

65. Gourlay M, Gutierrez C, Chong A, et al. Group A streptococcal sepsis and ovarian vein thrombosis after an uncomplicated vaginal delivery. J Am Board Fam Pract. 2001 Sep-Oct;14(5):375-80.Full text  Abstract

66. Gergis H, Barik S, Lim K, et al. Life-threatening puerperal infection with group A streptococcus. J R Soc Med. 1999 Aug;92(8):412-3.Full text  Abstract

67. Okumura K, Schroff R, Campbell R, et al. Group A streptococcal puerperal sepsis with retroperitoneal involvement developing in a late postpartum woman: case report. Am Surg. 2004 Aug;70(8):730-2. Abstract

68. Agerson AN, Wilkins EG. Streptococcal toxic shock syndrome after breast reconstruction. Ann Plast Surg. 2005 May;54(5):553-6. Abstract

69. Celie KB, Colen DL, Kovach SJ 3rd. Toxic shock syndrome after surgery: case presentation and systematic review of the literature. Plast Reconstr Surg Glob Open. 2020 May;8(5):e2499.Full text  Abstract

70. Billon A, Gustin MP, Tristan A, et al. Association of characteristics of tampon use with menstrual toxic shock syndrome in France. EClinicalMedicine. 2020 Apr;21:100308.Full text  Abstract

71. Reingold AL, Broome CV, Gaventa S, et al. Risk factors for menstrual toxic shock syndrome: results of a multistate case-control study. Rev Infect Dis. 1989 Jan-Feb;11(suppl 1):S35-S41. Abstract

72. Osterholm MT, Davis JP, Gibson RW, et al. Toxic shock syndrome: relation to catamenial products, personal health and hygiene, and sexual practices. Ann Intern Med. 1982 Jun;96(6 Pt 2):954-8. Abstract

73. Broome CV. Epidemiology of toxic shock syndrome in the United States: overview. Rev Infect Dis. 1989 Jan-Feb;11(suppl 1):S14-S21. Abstract

74. Strandberg KL, Peterson ML, Schaefers MM, et al. Reduction in Staphylococcus aureus growth and exotoxin production and in vaginal interleukin 8 levels due to glycerol monolaurate in tampons. Clin Infect Dis. 2009 Dec 1;49(11):1711-7. Abstract

75. Rimailho A, Riou B, Richard C, et al. Fulminant necrotizing fasciitis and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. J Infect Dis. 1987 Jan;155(1):143-6. Abstract

76. Vucicevic Z, Jajic-Bencic I, Kruslin B, et al. Toxic shock syndrome due to group A streptococcal pharyngitis and bacteremia in adults. J Microbiol Immunol Infect. 2009 Jun;42(3):276-9 Abstract

77. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Group A streptococcal (GAS) disease: strep ​throat. Jun 2022 [internet publication].Full text

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81. Kanetake K, Hayashi M, Hino A, et al. Primary peritonitis associated with streptococcal toxic shock-like syndrome: report of a case. Surg Today. 2004;34(12):1053-6. Abstract

82. Tseng HW, Liu CC, Wang SM, et al. Complications of varicella in children: emphasis on skin and central nervous system disorders. J Microbiol Immunol Infect. 2000 Dec;33(4):248-52. Abstract

83. Evans L, Rhodes A, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving sepsis campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock 2021. Crit Care Med. 2021 Nov 1;49(11):e1063-143.Full text  Abstract

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105. Linnér A, Darenberg J, Sjölin J, et al. Clinical efficacy of polyspecific intravenous immunoglobulin therapy in patients with streptococcal toxic shock syndrome: a comparative observational study. Clin Infect Dis. 2014 Sep 15;59(6):851-7. Abstract

106. Darenberg J, Ihendyane N, Sjolin J, et al. Intravenous immunoglobulin G therapy in streptococcal toxic shock syndrome: a European randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Clin Infect Dis. 2003 Aug 1;37(3):333-40.Full text  Abstract

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129. DermNet. Toxic shock syndrome and toxic shock-like syndrome. Oct 2021 [internet publication].​Full text