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Esophageal cancer

Last reviewed: 5 Oct 2024
Last updated: 22 Oct 2024

Summary

Definition

History and exam

Key diagnostic factors

  • dysphagia
  • odynophagia
  • weight loss
Full details

Other diagnostic factors

  • hiccups
  • postprandial/paroxysmal cough
Full details

Risk factors

  • male sex
  • older age
  • tobacco use
  • excessive alcohol use (squamous cell carcinoma)
  • Barrett esophagus (adenocarcinoma)
  • GERD (adenocarcinoma)
  • hiatal hernia (adenocarcinoma)
  • family history of esophageal or other cancer (squamous cell carcinoma)
  • low socioeconomic status
  • nonwhite race (squamous cell carcinoma)
  • high-temperature beverages and foods (squamous cell carcinoma)
  • drinking maté (squamous cell carcinoma)
  • low intake of fresh fruit and vegetables
  • hereditary cancer syndromes
  • obesity (adenocarcinoma)
  • human papillomavirus (squamous cell carcinoma)
  • achalasia
  • vitamin and mineral deficiencies (squamous cell carcinoma)
  • poor oral hygiene (squamous cell carcinoma)
Full details

Diagnostic tests

1st tests to order

  • esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD) with biopsy
  • endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) ± fine needle aspiration (FNA)
  • CT thorax and abdomen
  • (18F)-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose positron emission tomography (FDG-PET) scan
  • molecular and pathologic tests
Full details

Tests to consider

  • comprehensive metabolic panel
  • MRI thorax and abdomen
  • bronchoscopy ± fine needle aspiration (FNA)
  • thoracoscopy and laparoscopy
  • liquid biopsy
  • pulmonary function tests
  • cardiac stress test
  • echocardiogram
Full details

Treatment algorithm

ACUTE

limited disease (cT1, cN0, M0)

localized disease (cT2, cN0, M0): suitable for surgery

localized disease (cT2, cN0, M0): unsuitable for surgery

locally advanced disease (cT3-4, cN1-3, M0): suitable for surgery

locally advanced disease (cT3-4, cN1-3, M0): unsuitable for surgery

metastatic (M1) disease

ONGOING

recurrent disease

Contributors

Authors

Ravi Rajaram, MD MSc FACS

Assistant Professor

Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery

University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center

Houston

TX

Disclosures

RR is a research consultant for Johnson & Johnson and Cook Medical.

Acknowledgements

Dr Ravi Rajaram would like to gratefully acknowledge Dr Naureen Starling, Dr Caroline Fong, Dr Mark J. Krasna, and Dr Ghulam Abbas, the previous contributors to this topic.

Disclosures

MJK is an author of several references cited in this topic. GA declares that he has no competing interests. NS has received research funding from AstraZeneca, BMS, and Pfizer; travel and accommodation funding from AstraZeneca, BMS, Eli Lilly, Merck, Roche, and MSD Oncology; honoraria from Eli Lilly, Merck Serono, MSD Oncology, Pierre Fabre, Servier, GSK, and Amgen. She has been on the advisory board for Pfizer, AstraZeneca, Servier, and MSD (Merck). NS is an Honorary Clinical Senior Lecturer within the Division of Clinical Studies at the Institute of Cancer Research and serves on the UK National Cancer Research Institute (NCRI) esophagogastric sub-group. NS has acted as a clinical expert in esophagogastric cancer for NICE (guideline committee and technology appraisal) and is an upper GI expert for International Cancer Benchmarking Partnership. She is a Trustee for Pancreatic Cancer UK and a member of the EORTC General Assembly representing The Royal Marsden, as well as a member of the European Society for Medical Oncology (ESMO) Gastrointestinal Faculty. Educational roles include the NIHR Training Lead for NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, member of the Cancer Research Centre of Excellence training committee, Deputy Training Program Director (one of three) for South London Medical Oncology Training, member of the pan-London specialist Medical oncology training committee, and member of the Medical Oncology National Recruitment steering committee. CF declares that she has received honoraria from Bristol Myers Squibb.

Peer reviewers

Peter McCulloch, MBChB, MA, MD, FRCS (Ed), FRCS (Glas)

Clinical Reader in Surgery

Nuffield Department of Surgery

University of Oxford

Oxford

UK

Disclosures

PM declares that he has no competing interests.

Nikhil I. Khushalani, MD

Assistant Professor of Oncology

Roswell Park Cancer Institute

Buffalo

NY

Disclosures

NIK has received funding for the conduction of clinical trials and associated translational studies from Merck, Pfizer, and Astra-Zeneca. NIK has a grant from the National Comprehensive Cancer Network (from research support by Roche).

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