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Anterior cruciate ligament injury

Last reviewed: 5 Apr 2025
Last updated: 09 Jan 2025

Summary

Definition

History and exam

Key diagnostic factors

  • audible pop
  • rapid knee swelling
  • inability to return to the ongoing sporting activity
  • sensation of knee instability or buckling
  • pain
  • positive Lachman test
  • positive pivot shift maneuver
Full details

Other diagnostic factors

  • tenderness at lateral femoral condyle, lateral tibial plateau
  • positive anterior drawer test
Full details

Risk factors

  • acute trauma
  • female sex (after puberty)
  • poor technique for landings
  • history of previous ACL injury
  • aggressive athlete with higher skill level
  • use of cleats or spikes
  • rough or uneven playing surface
  • ground condition/weather
  • fatigue
  • adolescent, young adults, and middle-aged athletes
Full details

Diagnostic tests

1st tests to order

  • x-rays
Full details

Tests to avoid

  • CT
Full details

Tests to consider

  • MRI
  • arthroscopy
Full details

Treatment algorithm

ACUTE

sedentary patients

moderate intensity demands

intense dynamic demands

Contributors

Authors

Philip H. Cohen, MD
Philip H. Cohen

Clinical Assistant Professor of Medicine

Robert Wood Johnson Medical School

University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey

Piscataway

NJ

Disclosures

PHC has been reimbursed by MCE Conferences for providing lectures and workshops in sports medicine.

Peer reviewers

James C. Puffer, MD

Professor

University of Kentucky School of Medicine

President and Chief Executive Officer

American Board of Family Medicine

Lexington

KY

Disclosures

JCP declares that he has no competing interests.

Jung-Ro Yoon, MD

Director

Department of Orthopedic Surgery

Seoul Veterans Hospital

Seoul

South Korea

Disclosures

JRY declares that she has no competing interests.

References

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Key articles

Arundale AJH, Bizzini M, Giordano A, et al. Exercise-Based Knee and Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury Prevention. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2018 Sep;48(9):A1-A42.Full text  Abstract

American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. Management of anterior cruciate ligament injuries​: evidence-based clinical practice guideline. Aug 2022 [internet publication].Full text

Padua DA, DiStefano LJ, Hewett TE, et al. National Athletic Trainers' Association Position Statement: Prevention of Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury. J Athl Train. 2018 Jan;53(1):5-19.Full text  Abstract

van Melick N, van Cingel RE, Brooijmans F, et al. Evidence-based clinical practice update: practice guidelines for anterior cruciate ligament rehabilitation based on a systematic review and multidisciplinary consensus. Br J Sports Med. 2016 Dec;50(24):1506-15.Full text  Abstract

Reference articles

A full list of sources referenced in this topic is available to users with access to all of BMJ Best Practice.
  • Anterior cruciate ligament injury images
  • Differentials

    • Medial collateral ligament (MCL) sprain
    • Posterior collateral ligament (PCL) sprain
    • Lateral collateral ligament (LCL) sprain
    More Differentials
  • Guidelines

    • AAOS management of anterior cruciate ligament injuries
    • ACR appropriateness criteria - acute trauma to the knee
    More Guidelines
  • Patient information

    Anterior cruciate ligament injury

    More Patient information
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